Open Caves Research Articles

VIC-PRO: Vicinity Protection by Concealing Location Coordinates Using Geometrical Transformations in Location Based Services

Portable devices today are striding computation potential and memory at par and sometimes even significantly higher than those found in desktop machines. Today’s lifestyle is more mobile than earlier, offices are open cafe houses and people prefer to work from plug and play office spaces. With the exponential growth of mobile technology and its users, a more astute system is in place called ‘location based services’ (LBSs). Since client uses these services out of their dynamic or static working behavior and is required to submit the real location (with query) to get the absolute benefits, it is crucial to layout the systems and frameworks which can protect users from the security and privacy threats by keeping the location information private. Existing defense mechanisms based on trusted third party possesses the significant vulnerability to vicinity identification, which in turn end up identifying the real world identity of the query issuer. In this paper, we present a scheme to preserve location privacy, called VIC-PRO, that fortifies the location privacy of the client alongside vicinity protection using geometrical transformations. We experimentally compare the scheme with other existing mechanisms to demonstrate that VIC-PRO is more efficient, safe against vicinity identification attack, and guarantees better user privacy in an LBS setup.

Locating Cave Entrances Using Lidar-Derived Local Relief Modeling

Lidar (Light detection and ranging) scanning has revolutionized our ability to locate geographic features on the earth’s surface, but there have been few studies that have addressed discovering caves using this technology. Almost all attempts to find caves using lidar imagery have focused on locating sinkholes that lead to underground cave systems. As archaeologists, our work in the Chiquibul Forest Reserve, a heavily forested area in western Belize, focuses on locating potential caves for investigation. Caves are an important part of Maya cultural heritage utilized by the ancient Maya people as ritual spaces. These sites contain large numbers of artifacts, architecture, and human remains, but are being looted at a rapid rate; therefore, our goal is to locate and investigate as many sites as possible during our field seasons. While some caves are entered via sinkholes, most are accessed via vertical cliff faces or are entered by dropping into small shafts. Using lidar-derived data, our goal was to locate and investigate not only sinkholes but other types of cave entrances using point cloud modeling. In this article, we describe our method for locating potential cave openings using local relief models that require only a working knowledge of relief visualization techniques. By using two pedestrian survey techniques, we confirmed a high rate of accuracy in locating cave entrances that varied in both size and morphology. Although 100% pedestrian survey coverage delivered the highest rate accuracy in cave detection, lidar image analyses proved to be expedient for meeting project goals when considering time and resource constraints.

U-Pb-dated flowstones restrict South African early hominin record to dry climate phases.

The Cradle of Humankind (Cradle) in South Africa preserves a rich collection of fossil hominins representing Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Homo1. The ages of these fossils are contentious2-4 and have compromised the degree to which the South African hominin record can be used to test hypotheses of human evolution. However, uranium-lead (U-Pb) analyses of horizontally bedded layers of calcium carbonate (flowstone) provide a potential opportunity to obtain a robust chronology5. Flowstones are ubiquitous cave features and provide a palaeoclimatic context, because they grow only during phases of increased effective precipitation6,7, ideally in closed caves. Here we show that flowstones from eight Cradle caves date to six narrow time intervals between 3.2 and 1.3 million years ago. We use a kernel density estimate to combine 29 U-Pb ages into a single record of flowstone growth intervals. We interpret these as major wet phases, when an increased water supply, more extensive vegetation cover and at least partially closed caves allowed for undisturbed, semi-continuous growth of the flowstones. The intervening times represent substantially drier phases, during which fossils of hominins and other fossils accumulated in open caves. Fossil preservation, restricted to drier intervals, thus biases the view of hominin evolutionary history and behaviour, and places the hominins in a community of comparatively dry-adapted fauna. Although the periods of cave closure leave temporal gaps in the South African fossil record, the flowstones themselves provide valuable insights into both local and pan-African climate variability.

Georeferenced thermal infrared images from UAV surveys as a potential tool to detect and characterize shallow cave ducts

Caves are buried geological features of great scientific and engineering interest. Based on the well-known thermal inertia of cave settings with respect to the surface, we have tested the use of thermal infrared (TIR) cameras carried by unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to identify and characterize shallow karstic conduits. A pilot area was selected in a limestone rock massif from the Betic Cordillera (Southern Spain). At surface, this area appears as a doline field with several explored shaft entrances. The main and deepest shaft was thermally monitored at different depths, showing two well defined seasonal stages: (i) air and temperature stratification in summer and (ii) upward air flow and temperature homogenization in winter. We carried out UAV surveys at the expected maximum thermal contrast hours, finding out that winter dawns yielded the most distinctive images. These images show new warm air exits (warm spots) apart from the known cave entrances, and emphasize some of the main entrances depicting large warmed areas around them, which, in turn, can be related to shallow voids and conduits in the cave system. Furthermore, TIR images have been georeferenced using a network of identifiable points that can be transferred from visible orthoimages. The resulting TIR orthoimage mosaics have allowed us to define a number of quantitative parameters to characterize the warm spots. The most important of these parameters are: (i) the characteristic temperature, which is the maximum significant temperature of the air escaping from cave openings; (ii) the warmed area, which is the area that appears on the TIR orthoimage with a temperature greater than the surface temperature mode; and (iii) the average temperature weighted to the affected area. The georeferenced TIR orthoimages and the derived parameters are a new and very valuable tool for both speleological exploration and engineering purposes.

Welcome home: Brazilian free-tailed bats adjust their echolocation calls to detect cave opening

While both bats and dolphins use sonar to navigate their environment, the sensory challenges between the two are not equal since dolphins typically navigate in the open ocean and bats often navigate in cluttered environments. Brazilian free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis), for example, adjust their frequency modulated (FM) call structure based upon their environment, producing lower-bandwidth calls in open environments, and higher-bandwidth calls in cluttered environments. In this study, we examined how Brazilian free-tailed bats change the bandwidth of calls when locating the cave opening in a flat, non-cluttered environment. We extracted individual echolocation calls from two locations around the cave, one away from the cave opening and one next to edge of the cave opening, with the only distinctive difference in the environment of the locations being the presence of the cave edge. We found higher starting and lower stopping frequencies for the FM calls at the cave edge, resulting in an increased bandwidth. This higher bandwidth suggests the bats may rely on edge detection to locate the cave opening and change the bandwidth of their signals to improve target resolution when returning to the roost.

Titus Andronicus by F. M. Kirby Shakespeare Theatre

Reviewed by: Titus Andronicusby F. M. Kirby Shakespeare Theatre Barbara Ann Lukacs Titus AndronicusPresented by the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey at the F. M. Kirby Shakespeare Theatre, Drew University, Madison, NJ. 07 18– 08 5, 2018. Directed by Brian B. Crowe. Scenic design by Dick Block. Costumes by Yao Chen. Lighting by Andrew Hungerford. Sound design by Karin Graybash. Fight director Rick Sordelet. With Oliver Archibald (Bassianus), Clark Scott Carmichael (Lucius), Brent Comer (Alarbus), Bruce Cromer (Titus), Robert Cuccioli (Marcus), Benjamin Eakeley (Saturninus), Torsten Johnson (Demetrius), Emery Lawrence (Mutius), Quentin McCuiston (Chiron), Vanessa Morosco (Tamora), Jackson Knight Pierce (Martius), Fiona Robberson (Lavinia), Braden Spear (Quintus), Chris White (Aaron), and others. Director Brian Crowe's 2018 production of Titus Andronicusat the Shakespeare Theatre of New Jersey presented this bloody and violent play as an elegant and dignified study of family and revenge. In the program, Crowe wrote that the time was right to do this play because of the current political and societal climate in the USA. The culture of violence in life and in the media facilitated acceptance of Shakespeare's early revenge tragedy. Beyond a visceral level, Crowe saw the text in terms of a particular type of family, one rooted in vengeance. Titus and Tamora demonstrated the extremes to which one can go to avenge family members. I found Crowe's approach to this often-neglected play interesting because it went beyond the base thrill of seeing two families engaged in mutual acts of destruction, suggesting instead that this play was a picture of the human condition, the never-ending cycle of vengeance for wrongs committed against oneself or one's family. To establish a bleak tone for this production, the set was in shades of black and gray, save for the red of blood. In an abstract and symbolic way, it depicted the ruins of war. Two giant swords hung stage right. At stage left was an enormous ancient helmet tilted to its left and partially buried in the floor so that only part of the left eye socket was visible. A hidden staircase enabled the actors to ascend to the top of the helmet, which served as an upper playing area. For the hunting scene, a green plastic tarp was unrolled to cover the helmet so that it functioned as a hill with [End Page 734]the eye sockets being cave openings. Sharp spikes projected from timbers that framed the stage. I found the rear wall intriguing as it consisted of panels of dark green plastic sheeting. With each act of violence, a portion of the sheeting was ripped away, exposing a craggy red surface behind it. The moment Titus dispatched Tamora, the entire sheeting came down to expose the red wall, which symbolized that all hell had broken loose. For acts of consecration, as when the bodies of Titus's sons were buried, white paper slips were strewn by the actors. For acts of celebration, silver paper slips showered down or were tossed into the air. Crowe wisely dispensed with the gushing forth of "blood" by substituting a release of copious amounts of red paper slips whenever a bloodletting took place. To me, the brutality of the act remained shockingly evident, without the need for an accompanying visual effect of spurting liquid. Crowe added silent street sweepers who were present on stage and in the aisles both before and throughout the performance. These entities moved ever so wearily, as they toiled to sweep up the large amount of paper slips that were present on stage as the audience entered. When I questioned Crowe about them, he said that they represented the masses who had to clean up after each repetition in an eternal cycle of violence and retribution, which included the one about to unfold. Although the time period was ancient Rome, the costuming was anachronistic. Initially, Titus and his soldiers were in gray military frock coats with black leather belts and swords. Later, Titus was in a white shirt and gray pants. Marcus and his fellow tribunes wore off-white contemporary suits with maroon sashes. In later scenes, Marcus shifted to gray pants, gray cape, and a brown shirt. The...

Caves, Liminality, and the Sun in the Inca World

Caves were liminal features of the Inca sacred landscape, connecting this world with the underworld. They were places for making contact with ancestors and the powers of creation. In this paper we examine caves in southeastern Peru for solar orientations and cosmological context, with recourse to the concept of liminality that appears central to cave use. The cave within Kenko Grande has ceremonial steps adjacent to an altar upon which sunlight climbs at midday in June. A rear entrance and altar are illuminated at the time of the solar equinox sunrises. Lacco has three caves which have one solsticial orientation and two light-tubes. A primary opening in the cave at Lanlakuyok faces sunrise at the time of the equinoxes. Tambomachay contains a major fountain and a cave with a platform oriented to December solstice sunrise. Rumiwasi Bajo contains a number of niches and a nine-meter-long passageway oriented close to the June solstice sunset, while the other door opens to December solstice sunrise. Choquequilla is a complex cave opening to December solstice sunrise. The Royal Mausoleum is one of the major shrines of Machu Picchu and opens to June solstice sunrise. Intimachay is a cave with a constructed opening for the December solstice sunrise. The Temple of the Condor contains a cave approximately open to the anti-zenith sunrise. The Gran Caverna includes both an upper and a lower cave oriented for June solstice sunset. There are two caves at the River Intihuatana that, while part of an astronomically oriented complex, don’t have solstitial nor equinoctial orientations, nor do they have interior carvings. We end the paper by considering the role of caves and liminality in Inca cosmology.

French Terminology of Speleological Forms

The aim of terminology of speleological forms is to describe these forms, and a cave is an assembly of forms. In France, terms of common language were first used, such as entree (« entrance »), draperie (« drapery », « curtain »), etc. and a few terms of scientific origin such as stalagmite. Then speleologists realized that it was possible to describe forms by their geometry. Thus such terms as cone d’eboulis (« talus cone ») or « tube » were used. When the geometry is detailed, the description is more precise: the information is better when we know that there is a « ceiling channel » above the tube or that a stalagmite is presented as a « hollow stalagmite ». Often a « group » of identical forms can be identified in a limited zone, whereas there are no such forms in other parts of the cave. This is often the case with potholes or soda straws for instance. This type of observation improves the quality of description. There is also what can be presented as « associated forms »: Certain speleological forms are associated with one another: a sinkhole corresponds to a resurgence; a stalactite corresponds to a stalagmite. A group and the zone of the cave where it can be observed are also associated forms. Other speleological forms are associated with a geological form: a contact sinkhole between two rocks of different solubility, dip tube, stalactites aligned along a crack. Other forms are associated with a geographical form: a flowing cave opening at the level of a surface stream, deposit of rounded pebbles in a surface stream sinkhole. There are also genetic terms; the most used being « phreatic » and « vadose ». These terms are useful for the interpretation of forms, but they are quite dangerous for the description of forms: if a passage is presented as «vadose », one does not know what are the forms justifying the word for the author. And if a tube is almost always presented as «phreatic », most of them have never been permanently filled with water, and some of them have never been filled with water. Genetic terms are deceptive. They must be avoided when forms are described.

Palynology of Holocene Deposits in Excavation 1 at Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape (South Africa)

Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape Province (South Africa) is one of few sites in the subcontinent where fossil pollen has been preserved in Holocene cave floor deposits. With the exception of biogenic deposits and stalagmite layers near the cave opening, older material has yielded no pollen. Pollen recorded in previous and new samples from late Pleistocene-Holocene deposits in Excavation 1 at the cave are combined in a calibrated age model based on a selection of published radiocarbon dates. The results confirm patterns observed previously by the late E. M. van Zinderen Bakker, but a new interpretation of the environmental implications and history of the pollen sequence at the site is proposed, viz., dry karroid vegetation in the early Holocene and relatively humid grassy conditions between ca. 5,500 and 4,400 cal yr BP. The results are consistent with those of microfaunal and isotopic studies, and form part of growing proxy evidence for past environmental conditions in the South African interior.

Is It Art or Knowledge? Deconstructing Australian Aboriginal Creative Making

Australian Aboriginal symbols are visual forms of knowledge that express cultural intellect. Being classified by a Western interpretation of “art” devalues thousands of years of generational knowledge systems, where visual information has been respected, appreciated and valued. This article highlights how Aboriginal creativity has little concept of aesthetical value, but is a cultural display of meaning relating to Creational periods, often labelled as The Dreamings. With over 350 different Aboriginal Nations in Australia, this article focuses of the Dharug Nation, located around the northern Sydney area of New South Wales. The Dharug term for the Creational period is Gunyalungalung—traditional ritualized customary lores (laws). These symbols are permanently located within the environment on open rock surfaces, caves and markings on trees. Whilst some symbols are manmade, others are made by Creational ancestral beings and contain deep story lines of information in sacredness. Therefore, creative imagery engraved or painted on rock surfaces are forms of conscious narratives that emphasise deep insight.

Additions to Cuban Selaginella (Selaginellaceae)

Three new Selaginella species from Cuba, S. myriostachya, S. nanophylla and S. phiara, are described, illustrated with Scanning Electron Micrographs, and compared to similar species. Selaginella myriostachya and S. phiara are from Pinar del Río province, the latter one is also found in Isla de la Juventud special municipality, both in the western part of Cuba. In contrast, S. nanophylla is from Guantánamo, Holguín, and Santiago de Cuba provinces in the eastern part of the island. Information about their habitat, distribution, and conservation status is provided. Selaginella myriostachya lives in cave openings on limestone rocks in Mogotes formations; S. nanophylla is one of the smallest plants reported for the genus and seems adapted to serpentine soils. Selaginella phiara has idioblasts with several bright, papillae on the upper surface of median leaves and lower surface of lateral leaves, and short hairs on the upper surface of the apices of median leaves.

Facilitation of coral reef biodiversity and health by cave sponge communities

Marine caves are understudied ecosystems that are frequently associated with coral reef communities; many are tidally influenced and may host a highly diverse sponge fauna. Although each cave represents a distinct habitat likely structured by site-specific hydrographic processes, a more complete understanding of the ecology of these communities requires com parative studies. Based on a gradient of sponge cover within 5 Bahamian caves, we conducted a natural experiment in sponge-derived nutrient enrichment of nearby patch reefs. We tested the hypothesis that water exiting the cave during low tide provides a nutrient-rich resource that facilitates the diversity and health of nearby reef communities. The percent cover and diversity of corals surrounding the openings of caves were significantly higher than in similar habitats farther removed from these communities. There was a significant correlation between percent sponge cover within the caves and nitrate concentrations in seawater flowing out of the caves, and δ15N stable isotope signatures indicated enrichment of the nearby reefs by sponge-derived nitrate. Zooxanthellae abundance and total protein concentration were higher in corals from reefs near cave entrances, suggesting that those corals benefited more from cave nutrients than did corals farther from cave openings. In addition to corals, percent algal cover increased near cave entrances, but these potential competitors of corals were kept in check by increased levels of herbivory relative to sites removed from cave mouths. As global environmental changes continue to impact coral reef ecosystems, diversity ‘hot spots’, such as these marine caves, could serve as refuges and ‘seedbanks’ for nearby dwindling reef habitats.

Land use and limitations in the sinkhole and polje karst of the Ksiromero Region, Western Greece

Ksiromero occupies an area of 107 km2 in the northeast section of the Prefecture of Aitoloakarnania in western Greece. Its karst is developed primarily on beds of 10–200 m thick Triassic carbonate breccia conglomerates which underlie 70 % of the region. Other karstified units overly 200–300 m thick sequences of upper Triassic to early Jurassic limestones and dolomites and an underlying 150 m thick Triassic gypsum deposit. Major karst features include sinkholes and poljes that capture all surface water. Open caves and conduits are rare due to in-fill by residual terra rossa soils. “Ksiromero” is Greek for “dry place.” While in one of the wetter regions of Greece, with a mean annual precipitation of 962–1,040 mm and a mean evapotranspiration rate of 47 %, no perennial springs are known, surface water is rare, and accessible groundwater is minimal. Some shallow wells in the breccia conglomerate serve as small, local water supplies. Geochemical analyses of water samples from two wells show significant differences due to aquifer type (limestone versus terra rossa) but groundwater is suitable at least for irrigation and livestock and probably human consumption. Generally, domestically used water is supplied to Ksiromero from a neighboring region. Water for agriculture is stored in more than 75 reservoirs, some of which are natural sinkholes but most are excavated in terra rossa soils of poljes and large sinkholes. Shallow groundwater occurs in some of these reservoirs, as well as seasonally captured storm water, but much is pumped in from the adjacent region or from nearby wells. This system is adequate for the area’s modest water needs, but not for potential increased demand. Most land use is farming and pasture, and limited to the relatively flat floors of sinkholes and poljes. The absence of sanitary landfills and other agricultural contaminants potentially threaten groundwater quality, but the impacts are not presently quantifiable due to insufficient aquifer characterization.

Geochemical techniques to discover open cave passage in karst spring systems

Dissolved O2 (DO) and pH data provide a novel, inexpensive field method to detect open cave passages in karst spring systems that can be complemented by laboratory measurements of major elements and nutrients, total suspended solids (TSS), Escherichia coli (E. coli) levels, and stable isotopes. Karst springs in east-central Missouri that have no known air-filled passages (“phreatic” springs) typically have low DO and pH values (<80% saturation and <7.7, respectively), which are characteristic of groundwaters that do not communicate with the atmosphere. In contrast, springs draining vadose cave passages have higher DO and pH values (>60% saturation and >7.7, respectively) that resemble surface waters due to the equilibration of DO with the overlying cave atmosphere and the simultaneous degassing of dissolved CO2. Traverses down phreatic spring branches show exchange with the atmosphere causes an increase in DO only a short distance downstream of the spring orifice, while the pH concurrently increases due to the degassing of CO2. Further downstream both parameters tend to level off reflecting a general approach to equilibrium under surface conditions, though this process is more rapid for DO than for pH. In contrast, the DO and pH along cave spring branches change little from values at the cave entrance. Additionally, (1) degassing processes affect the saturation state of calcite, with cave springs being the most saturated with respect to calcite, (2) phreatic springs typically have lower TSS and E. coli levels than open cave springs due to slower and less variable flow delivery, longer residence times, and less turbulent flow, and (3) phreatic springs tend to plot on the global meteoric water line (MWL), while waters from open cave systems tend to be enriched in 18O and D and can plot below the line due to evaporation and exchange of the water with the overlying cave atmosphere.

Environmental conditions and geomorphologic changes during the Middle–Upper Paleolithic in the southern Iberian Peninsula

This study utilizes geomorphology, marine sediment data, environmental reconstructions and the Gorham's Cave occupational record during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition to illustrate the impacts of climate changes on human population dynamics in the Western Mediterranean. Geomorphologic evolution has been dated and appears to be driven primarily by coastal dune systems, sea-level changes and seismo-tectonic evolution. Continental and marine records are well correlated and used to interpret the Gorham's Cave sequence. Specific focus is given to the three hiatus sections found in Gorham's Cave during Heinrich periods 4, 3 and 2. These time intervals are compared with a wide range of regional geomorphologic, climatic, paleoseismic, faunal and archeological records. Our data compilations indicate that climatic and local geomorphologic changes explain the Homo sapiens spp. occupational hiatuses during Heinrich periods 4 and 3. The last hiatus corresponds to the replacement of Homo neanderthalensis by H. sapiens. Records of dated cave openings, slope breccias and stalactite falls suggest that marked geomorphologic changes, seismic activity and ecological perturbations occurred during the period when Homo replacement took place.

Breeding Sites of Phlebotomus sergenti, the Sand Fly Vector of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in the Judean Desert

Phlebotomine sand flies transmit Leishmania, phlebo-viruses and Bartonella to humans. A prominent gap in our knowledge of sand fly biology remains the ecology of their immature stages. Sand flies, unlike mosquitoes do not breed in water and only small numbers of larvae have been recovered from diverse habitats that provide stable temperatures, high humidity and decaying organic matter. We describe studies designed to identify and characterize sand fly breeding habitats in a Judean Desert focus of cutaneous leishmaniasis. To detect breeding habitats we constructed emergence traps comprising sand fly-proof netting covering defined areas or cave openings. Large size horizontal sticky traps within the confined spaces were used to trap the sand flies. Newly eclosed male sand flies were identified based on their un-rotated genitalia. Cumulative results show that Phlebotomus sergenti the vector of Leishmania tropica rests and breeds inside caves that are also home to rock hyraxes (the reservoir hosts of L. tropica) and several rodent species. Emerging sand flies were also trapped outside covered caves, probably arriving from other caves or from smaller, concealed cracks in the rocky ledges close by. Man-made support walls constructed with large boulders were also identified as breeding habitats for Ph. sergenti albeit less important than caves. Soil samples obtained from caves and burrows were rich in organic matter and salt content. In this study we developed and put into practice a generalized experimental scheme for identifying sand fly breeding habitats and for assessing the quantities of flies that emerge from them. An improved understanding of sand fly larval ecology should facilitate the implementation of effective control strategies of sand fly vectors of Leishmania.

Open Cafe System: Development and Application of FOSS4G Package in Natural Environment Studies

Open Cafe System: Development and Application of FOSS4G Package in Natural Environment Studies

Swarming of Bats at Different Elevations in the Carpathian Mountains

Swarming bat activity was monitored at three caves at elevations ranging from 880 m to 1,907 m above sea level in the Carpathian Mountains, using an infrared light barrier with data-logger, a video camera with a night-scope system, and subsequently by mist netting. A total of 6,175 bats of 19 species was captured, and over 70,000 passes through cave openings were registered. Caves differed in bat species richness, sex ratio, abundance of particular species and species composition. Peak species richness was observed in the mid-elevation cave. Bat activity was high in all caves, but declined with increasing altitude. Swarming activity occurred earlier at high elevation than at lower elevations. Activity of boreal-alpine species, such as Eptesicus nilssonii, peaked at the start of the swarming period, that of species typical of lower elevations, such as Myotis emarginatus, peaked in the middle of the swarming season. In a few species, males showed a significant preference for higher altitude caves, in contrast to females. A similar pattern was observed in the proportion of adults to juveniles, which increased with increasing elevation. Our results also suggest that M. brandtii and M. alcathoe were more often encountered at lower elevations, M. mystacinus (sensu stricto) at higher ones.

Molecular characterization of airborne fungi in caves of the Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, China

In this study, we analyzed air samples collected from several sites within the Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang, China. The samples were collected each month from September 2008 to August 2009 from an open cave (OC), a semi-open cave (SC), a closed cave (CC), and the entrance (EN) of the Mogao Grottoes. Sampling was carried out using a six-stage Andersen FA-I sampler; then samples were cultured and fungal isolates were identified by partial sequencing of their internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Eleven different fungal genera were found, and the most prevalent was Cladosporium, followed by Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Aspergillus. The fungal community composition varied among the four sites. Fungal community structure was significantly related to site ( r = −0.293, p = 0.039) and to time of year ( r = −0.523, p = 0.000). The concentrations and abundance of airborne fungi varied greatly throughout the year at the four sampling sites. Meteorological parameters (e.g., temperature, relative humidity) and the number of visitors also influenced both abundance and community structure of airborne fungi in the Mogao Grottoes.

Detection and Morphologic Analysis of Potential Below-Canopy Cave Openings in the Karst Landscape around the Maya Polity of Caracol using Airborne Lidar

Locating caves can be difficult, as their entranceways are often obscured below vegetation. Recently, active remote-sensing technologies, in particular laser-based sensor systems (LiDARs), have demonstrated the ability to penetrate dense forest canopies to reveal the underlying ground topography. An airborne LiDAR system was used to generate a 1 m resolution, bare-earth digital elevation model (DEM) from an archaeologically- and speleologically-rich area of western Belize near the ancient Maya site of Caracol. Using a simple index to detect elevation gradients in the DEM, we identified depressions with at least a 10 m change within a circular area of no more than 25 m radius. Across 200 km 2 of the karst landscape, we located 61 depressions. Sixty of these had not been previously documented; the other was a cave opening known from a previous expedition. The morphologies of the depressions were characterized based on the LiDAR-derived DEM parameters, e.g., depth, opening area, and perimeter. We also investigated how the measurements change as a function of spatial resolution. Though there was a range of morphologies, most depressions were clustered around an average maximum depth of 21 m and average opening diameter of 15 m. Five depression sites in the general vicinity of the Caracol epicenter were visited; two of these were massive, with opening diameters of ,50 m, two could not be explored for lack of climbing gear, and one site was a cave opening into several chambers with speleothems and Maya artifacts. Though further investigation is warranted to determine the archaeological and geological significance of the remaining depressions, the general methodology represents an important advancement in cave detection.