Open-air Site Research Articles

The MIS 4 environmental stress impact on hominin occupation in the northwestern Caucasus: New evidence from the Hadjoh 2 site

The Hadjoh 2 open-air site is one of a few Middle Palaeolithic sites known in the northwestern Caucasus, which provide evidence of both the early (MIS 5) and late (MIS 3) stages of the Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the region. The 2020 multidisciplinary research indicates that Hadjoh 2 preserves four distinct Middle Palaeolithic layers, which house the evidence for hominins that produced the Middle Palaeolithic assemblages and visited the site periodically from about 120–100 ka in MIS 5d to about 50–45 ka in MIS 3. At present, Hadjoh 2 is the only Middle Palaeolithic open-air site in the North Caucasus, in which the site's lithostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental conditions were investigated by means of modern-level studies, including palynological and paleopedologic analyses, and magnetic proxy data.

A new Palaeolithic female figurine from Piatra Neamț, Romania

We report here on the 2019 discovery of an Upper Palaeolithic female figurine at the open-air site of Piatra Neamț in the Bistrița valley, Romania. This figurine, the first ever to be discovered in Romania, was found in an area in which Palaeolithic figurative art is extremely poorly represented and such figurines are absent. We shall present the first observations regarding the context of find and materials on the site, the results of the dating of occupations excavated so far and a detailed description of the figurine, for which low- and high-resolution microscopy was used. Its analysis involved several stages of research and the use of non-destructive methods: Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE), FT–Raman vibrational spectroscopy, Computed tomography (CT) scan. In this way, ever since its first publication, the Palaeolithic figurine found at Piatra Neamț has been the subject of several interdisciplinary studies, which have allowed for better description and characterisation of the traces preserved on it.

Continuous technological and behavioral development of late Pleistocene hominins in central South China: Multidisciplinary analysis at Sandinggai

Lithic technological development in the Late Pleistocene of South China has received substantial attention in recent years due to a series of recent fossil discoveries in the region, including some assigned to early modern Homo sapiens. Here we present a comprehensive study of the open-air site of Sandinggai, which is located in the middle valley of the Yangtze River in central South China. Luminescence dating based on quartz and feldspar has shown that the initial occupation of the site began from ca. 96.6 ± 5.1 ka and continued until the end of the last deglacial period (i.e., ca. 13.3 ± 0.3 ka). The site thus provides a substantial chronological sequence to investigate the behavioral development of early humans. Technological analysis shows that a Large Cutting Tool (LCT) techno-complex based mainly on coarse-grained quartz sandstone co-existed with a small flake and flake tool production system based on chert, with the latter playing a more prominent role. In addition, this small débitage flaking component lacks skillful prepared core technology, which is often present in the West at contemporaneous sites. Furthermore, from a wider regional context, an evolutionary pattern is suggested which shows that the pre-existing Middle Pleistocene LCT techno-complex underwent a marked decline during the Late Pleistocene, while in contrast, the local small flaking system became prominent and continued to develop through time, without discernible external influence. These data suggest a re-evaluation of current ideas on the movement of early modern humans into the region, along with their potential influence in the different regions of South China.

Thriving in the Thirstland: New Stone Age sites from the Middle Kalahari, Botswana

This paper documents the abundance of Stone Age finds in the Middle Kalahari, both through earlier publications and newly documented sites. Results of several decades of Stone Age research are presented through a variety of projects and placed within the context of previous archaeological investigations in the region. We argue for the importance of open-air sites in constructing a more representative picture of prehistoric behaviour in the interior of southern Africa.

Exploring the Lithic Variability of the Mousterian (MIS 9–3) Open-Air Sites of the Pontine Plain (Central Italy)

This paper presents a preliminary study of the Middle Palaeolithic lithic industries recovered at six selected open-air sites in the Latium region (central Italy), part of a regional cultural complex known as the “Pontinian”. The pedo-stratigraphic analysis combined with 40Ar/ 39Ar age constraints on the sites permits us to provide for the first time a geomorphological and chronological (300–40 ka) framework for several open-air sites in central Italy. The temporal range is remarkably coincident with the Neanderthal presence in this region. Moreover, the lithic collections analysed include the oldest occurrence of a Mousterian industry in this region. The present work, therefore, provides the background context for future re-evaluation of the peculiar Pontinian techno-complex through a more in-depth technological approach and its comparison with the other Neanderthal occurrences in central Italy.

Lacustrine geoarchaeology in the central Kalahari: Implications for Middle Stone Age behaviour and adaptation in dryland conditions

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) was a time of great human adaptation and innovation. In southern Africa, coastal locations have been viewed as key places for the development of human resource use and behaviour, with the dryness of the continental interior after c.130 ka regarded as both an obstacle to occupation and a limit on behaviour. Newly excavated MSA sites on the floor of the now-dry palaeolake Makgadikgadi basin, central Botswana, along with accompanying environmental data, have provided a significant opportunity to reassess the nature of MSA adaptation to, and behaviour under, dry conditions. Excavated sites dated to 80–72 ka and post 57 ka reveal purposeful early human use of an extensive 60,000 km2 lacustrine basin during dry, as opposed to lake-high, phases, as well as highlighting movement strategies for tool-making resource procurement. Findings have significant implications for theories of early human mobility and innovation, as well as for understanding the drivers, constraints and opportunities for the use of drylands. The deliberate selective movement of lithic raw materials within the basin for artefact manufacture evidences thoughtful adaptation to dry conditions within the lake basin. This research shows that open-air sites in the Kalahari drylands of central southern Africa can make important contributions to debates surrounding the development of human-environment relationships during the MSA, as well as challenging narratives of a hostile and largely empty landscape.

People and Nature: Xuefeng Chen's Cross-Cultural Garden

Xuefeng Chen, a Chinese-born artist who settled in France in 2003, is currently constructing the installation ‘Bô – le jardin imaginaire’ in a disused quarry near Dijon. She has so far created six of the planned twenty-one sculptures which will populate the main arena of the open-air site. An art gallery without walls, it epitomises Chen’s view of her aesthetic and personal philosophy of going beyond boundaries. Drawing on the transmedial, we provide, firstly, some historical and cultural context to her work by considering the long-established connections between Chinese gardens/landscapes and the arts, notably painting. As well as being a transnational artist in terms of her life trajectory, her works convey elements of both Western influences and Chinese culture and this is the focus of the remainder of the study. Correspondences between traditional Chinese gardens, in particular those created and enjoyed by the Chinese literati, may be detected and are integral to the artist’s principal objectives. Additionally, she creates a space that embodies the Chinese idea of you (‘wandering’), a complex term denoting both physical and/or spiritual movement that expresses her playful nature, along with her eagerness to interact with others and to bring others into contact with each other, resulting in a freedom that transcends boundaries. Consequently, we propose that her imaginary garden provides a site and opportunity for cross-cultural encounters and ‘everyday multiculturalism’ (Ang 2001, Wise 2010, Watson and Saha 2012) that have social, cultural and aesthetic purposes.

Stratigraphy and chronology of two newly discovered Early Pleistocene Palaeolithic sites in the Hanjiang River Valley, Central China

Numerous open air Palaeolithic and hominin fossil sites have been discovered in the Qinling Mountain Range (QMR) in central China. However, a small number have been confirmed as dating to the Early Pleistocene. The present study introduces stratigraphic and chronological studies of the newly discovered Guanmenyan Palaeolithic site, Danjiangkou Basin, and Yuelianghu Palaeolithic site, Yunxian Basin along the Hanjiang River Valley, in the southern QMR. The artefacts recovered from Guanmenyan and Yuelianghu are consistent with Early Palaeolithic assemblages found at other localities in the region. Based on magnetostratigraphy and correlation with the loess-palaeosol sequence from the central Chinese Loess Plateau, our dating results show both open-air sites can be dated to the Early Pleistocene. Guanmenyan is dated ∼0.787–0.819 Ma (L8), while the upper and lower Palaeolithic cultural layers of Yuelianghu are dated ∼0.819–0.865 Ma (S8) and ∼ 0.943–989 Ma (S9), respectively. Thus Guanmenyan and Yuelianghu help to fill a chronological gap in the Palaeolithic record of Hanjiang River Valley and establish the QMR as a major region documenting this important period of hominin evolution in China.

Wolfgang Taute’s Excavation at the Open-Air Site Feuersteinacker and the Early Mesolithic in the Western Part of Central Germany

ABSTRACT Surveys near the village of Stumpertenrod revealed one of the largest Mesolithic assemblages in Germany. As a consequence of agricultural activities, the archaeological layers were partly eroded and the lithic artifact consisted mainly of surface finds. Between 1964 and 1966 Wolfgang Taute – a key-figure for the study of the Mesolithic in Europe – opened a trial-trench. Due to a lack of organic material, the campaign did not lead to the expected outcome and the site slowly fell into oblivion. The following article presents the results of typo-technological analyses of the lithic assemblage discovered in the course of the excavation. It provides new insights into the subsistence strategies of people during the early Holocene and re-integrates this significant site in current frameworks and debates. Furthermore, an interregional comparison of archaeological features and topographic parameters involving modern theoretical and methodological approaches, leads to a better understanding of the Early Mesolithic in the western part of Central Germany.

Jels 3, a New Late Palaeolithic Open-Air Site in Denmark, Sheds Light on the Pioneer Colonization of Northern Europe

ABSTRACT The Late Upper Palaeolithic Hamburgian tradition reflects the earliest known human presence in northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum. We report here on the open-air site of Jels 3 (Denmark) and its associated stone tool assemblage, which can be unambiguously attributed to this period. Along with only a handful of other sites, Jels 3 represents the northernmost limits of human expansion in Europe at this time. We conduct a technological analysis of the lithic material from Jels 3 and other relevant sites to shed new light on the behavioral processes that likely underwrote this expansion. Given that sites dating to this initial dispersal remain few, are restricted to certain geographic regions, and represent an overall lack of a well-developed settlement hierarchy, we suggest that this dispersal process is most commensurable with the earlier stages of a leap-frogging colonization targeting specific landscape elements and that it was quite possibly very short-lived.

New evidence for mountain Palaeolithic human occupation in the western Tian Shan piedmonts, eastern Uzbekistan

This article presents preliminary results from mountain survey in the Chatkal Range in the western Tian Shan piedmonts, eastern Uzbekistan. In 2021, several new Palaeolithic sites were discovered, including a single, multi-layered, open-air site—Kuksaray 2—located near a flint outcrop. The authors’ initial investigations have recovered a stone tool assemblage containing tools displaying both Middle Palaeolithic and Initial Upper Palaeolithic characteristics.

Hunter-gatherer environments at the Late Pleistocene sites of Mwanganda's Village and Bruce, northern Malawi

Mwanganda's Village (MGD) and Bruce (BRU) are two open-air site complexes in northern Malawi with deposits dating to between 15 and 58 thousand years ago (ka) and containing Middle Stone Age (MSA) lithic assemblages. The sites have been known since 1966 and 1965, respectively, but lacked chronometric and site formation data necessary for their interpretation. The area hosts a rich stone artifact record, eroding from and found within alluvial fan deposits exhibiting poor preservation of organic materials. Although this generally limits opportunities for site-based environmental reconstructions, MGD and BRU are located at the distal margins of the alluvial fan, where lacustrine lagoonal deposits were overprinted by a calcrete paleosol. This has created locally improved organic preservation and allowed us to obtain ecological data from pollen, phytoliths, and pedogenic carbonates, producing a regional- to site-scale environmental context for periods of site use and abandonment. Here, we integrate the ecological data into a detailed site formation history, based on field observations and micromorphology, supplemented by cathodoluminescence microscopy and μ-XRF. By comparing local, on-site environmental proxies with more regional indicators, we can better evaluate how MSA hunter-gatherers made decisions about the use of resources across the landscape. Our data indicate that while tree cover similar to modern miombo woodland and evergreen gallery forest prevailed at most times, MSA hunter-gatherers chose more locally open environments for activities that resulted in a lithic artifact record at multiple locations between 51 and 15 ka.

The Paleolithic of northwestern Zagros. 2012–2019 MAFGS Survey: Data and preliminary results

Between 2012 and 2019, the surveys conducted by the French archaeological mission of the Soulaimanih Governorate in the Rania and Peshadar plains of Iraqi Kurdistan, previously devoid of Paleolithic records, have yielded numerous lithic assemblages from open-air sites, caves and rock-shelters. We present here six lithic assemblages from the three districts surveyed, Rania, Peshdar and Dukan. Despite the absence of chronostratigraphic contexts and the still fragmentary data, the first typo-technological analyses carried out allow us to propose a first techno-cultural attribution to the Paleolithic and, more specifically for some assemblages, to the Middle Paleolithic. Among the sites uncovered, it is certainly the Paleolithic shelter of Sarsyan-Rostam Agha that was the most distinctive and which represents, with the Shanidar cave, one of the rare Paleolithic sites preserved in the northwestern Zagros. Its preserved Paleolithic sequence, rich in archaeological remains, and explored in a test-pit conducted in 2018, shows clear affinities with the Mousterian Zagros industries, a well-defined entity based on sites such as Shanidar, Bisitun, Warwasi and Mar Tarik.

A general view of the lower Palaeolithic of Turkey

Turkey is one of the rich countries in terms of the Lower Palaeolithic period. The favourable climatic and environmental conditions and quality stone raw material resources in the Pleistocene period caused the country to be heavily occupied by the people of the Lower Palaeolithic. Turkey has biface and flake industries of the Lower Palaeolithic period. Biface industries are more common in open-air sites and are often linked to the Acheulean. Biface tools are only found in the deposits of Karain Cave. The eastern and south-eastern parts of Turkey are the densest regions in terms of biface industries. This density decreases towards the west. However, this general appearance may have resulted from the insufficient level of excavations and surveys of Palaeolithic archaeology throughout the country. In this article, we try to draw a general framework of the Lower Palaeolithic period in Turkey, based on the important Lower Palaeolithic settlements in the country.

Hidden signatures of early fire at Evron Quarry (1.0 to 0.8 Mya)

Pyrotechnology is a key element of hominin evolution. The identification of fire in early hominin sites relies primarily on an initial visual assessment of artifacts' physical alterations, resulting in potential underestimation of the prevalence of fire in the archaeological record. Here, we used a suite of spectroscopic techniques to counter the absence of visual signatures for fire and demonstrate the presence of burnt fauna and lithics at the Lower Paleolithic (LP) open-air site of Evron Quarry (Israel), dated between 1.0 and 0.8 Mya and roughly contemporaneous to Gesher Benot Ya'aqov where early pyrotechnology has been documented. We propose reexamining finds from other LP sites lacking visual clues of pyrotechnology to yield a renewed perspective on the origin, evolution, and spatiotemporal dispersal of the relationship between early hominin behavior and fire use.

Bioarchaeological evidence of one of the earliest Islamic burials in the Levant

The Middle East plays a central role in human history harbouring a vast diversity of ethnic, cultural and religious groups. However, much remains to be understood about past and present genomic diversity in this region. Here we present a multidisciplinary bioarchaeological analysis of two individuals dated to the late 7th and early 8th centuries, the Umayyad Era, from Tell Qarassa, an open-air site in modern-day Syria. Radiocarbon dates and burial type are consistent with one of the earliest Islamic Arab burials in the Levant. Interestingly, we found genomic similarity to a genotyped group of modern-day Bedouins and Saudi rather than to most neighbouring Levantine groups. This study represents the genomic analysis of a secondary use site with characteristics consistent with an early Islamic burial in the Levant. We discuss our findings and possible historic scenarios in the light of forces such as genetic drift and their possible interaction with religious and cultural processes (including diet and subsistence practices).

PLEİSTOSEN DÖNEM GÜRGÜRBABA TEPESİ 028 NUMARALI BULUNTU ALANI (GBT-028) YONTMATAŞ TOPLULUĞU, ERCİŞ-VAN

The Gürgürbaba Tepesi-028 (GBT-028) open-air site is located in the Meydan mountain area, in the Erciş district of Van province, on the high plateau of eastern Turkey. The lithic assemblages of GBT-028 was dated to Lower Paleolithic period, which was determined during the survey in 2014. Since then, intensive survey was done in the area in 2019 and with a total of 2,060 obsidian lithics remains were analyzed. The large cutting tools, large flakes and their debris, and the prepared core industry were indicated that this region was inhabited by late Acheulean people and the site was used as a workshop area. Although GBT-028 has not been directly radiometrically dated, the base of the GBT-028 site was dated to 424.000 years ago, indicating that this location was in use roughly after this date. Additionally, GBT-028 is located on the same living floor as GBT-010, suggesting that it originated from GBT-010 and could be 311,000 years old. This will be crucial in terms of improving our understanding of the late Acheulean period and providing precise information on the behavioral activities of the people of the Pleistocene period.

The Paleolithic archaeology of Shirak Province and the open-air site of Aghvorik

Shirak Province in the Republic of Armenia is very rich in Paleolithic sites. Since the first discovery of Paleolithic artifacts in the 1930s, chance finds and field investigations by numerous scholars and archaeological expeditions have brought to light several new localities and findspots, among which the open-air site complex at Aghvorik is currently the most prominent. The Paleolithic sites of Shirak are geomorphologically associated with the Ashotsk Plateau in the north, the Shirak Depression and northwestern slopes of Mt. Aragats in the south, and the Akhuryan River gorge in the west. These areas contain several sources of high-quality lithic raw materials, including dacite, obsidian, and flint. The geomorphic and topographic locations of Paleolithic sites relate to phases of Plio-Pleistocene volcanism, glaciations in high elevation uplands, and the lacustrine and alluvial dynamics that formed the paleorelief and paleoenvironment. Lithic artifact assemblages generally present techno-typological characteristics consistent with early and late phases of the Acheulian, as observed at Lower Paleolithic sites in the Armenian Highlands and Southern Caucasus. While currently fewer in number than Lower Paleolithic finds, Middle Paleolithic artifacts obtained from sites in Shirak tend to be better preserved and made mainly of obsidian, while some dacite artifacts have also been documented. Shirak is also rich in paleontological, or zooarchaeological sites that have yielded a range of Pleistocene macro- and micro-faunal remains. While the Paleolithic archaeological, biostratigraphic, and geological records of Shirak have not yet been subject to systematic documentation and synthesis, the area holds great potential for future research to enlarge and complement the database of Pleistocene human occupation and environment in the broader region.

Into the light: The effect of UV light on flint tool surfaces, residues and adhesives

Functional studies of prehistoric stone tools are often hindered by the surface preservation of the artefacts. Archaeological residues and use-wear can differ from their experimentally reproduced counterparts to an extent that their identification is not possible by simple comparison. An understanding of how stone tools and residues change over time is thus essential for a better view of past human technology. In open-air site contexts, UV light is the first degradation agent to impact lithic tools before their burial. Even though UV light has been mentioned as an alteration process and its effects on certain mineral and organic materials are known from other scientific fields, it has never been thoroughly studied in archaeology. This study provides a synthesis of the effect of UV light on organic materials and presents the results of the first controlled experiment ever carried out in archaeology to investigate the impact of UV light on flint tools and adhesives.

Neanderthals in changing environments from MIS 5 to early MIS 4 in northern Central Europe – Integrating archaeological, (chrono)stratigraphic and paleoenvironmental evidence at the site of Lichtenberg

The resilience of Neanderthals towards changing climatic and environmental conditions, and especially towards severely cold climates in northern regions of central Europe, is still under debate. One way to address this is to investigate multi-layered occupation in different climatic intervals, using independently-compiled paleoenvironmental and chronological data. Unfortunately, most open-air sites on the northern European Plain lack a robust chronostratigraphy beyond the radiocarbon dating range, thereby often hampering direct links between human occupation and climate. Here we present the results of integrative research at the Middle Paleolithic open-air site of Lichtenberg, Northern Germany, comprising archaeology, luminescence dating, sedimentology, micromorphology, as well as pollen and phytolith analyses. Our findings clearly show Neanderthal presence in temperate, forested environments during the Mid-Eemian Interglacial, MIS 5e and the latest Brörup Interstadial, MIS 5c/GI 22 (Lichtenberg II). For the previously known occupation Lichtenberg I, we revise the chronology from the former early MIS 3 (57 ± 6 ka) to early MIS 4/GS 19 (71.3 ± 7.3 ka), with dominant cold steppe/tundra vegetation. The early MIS 4 occupation suggests that Neanderthals could adjust well to severely cold environments and implies recurring population in the region between MIS 5 and MIS 3. The artefact assemblages differ between the temperate and cold environment occupations regarding size, blank production, typology and tool use. We argue that this distinctness can partially be explained by different site functions and occupation duration, as well as the availability of large and high-quality flint raw material. Raw material availability is in turn governed by changing vegetation cover that hindered or fostered sediment redeposition as a provider of flint from the primary source of the glacial sediments nearby.