On-task Behavior Research Articles

Physical Activity in the Classroom

Integrating physical activity into the academic classroom not only supports overall health but also provides learning benefits: motivation, enjoyment of learning, decreases in behavior problems, and improvements in attention, on-task behavior, and academic performance.

Middle School Teachers’ Perceptions and Use of Classroom Management Strategies and Associations With Student Behavior

Disruptive student behavior in middle school is associated with negative outcomes, including poor grades, low achievement scores, dropout, lost teaching time, teacher burnout, and societal expenditures. Classroom Behavior Management (CBM) strategies are effective at reducing disruptive behavior, decreasing teacher stress, and increasing achievement with elementary students, but less is known regarding these strategies for middle school students. The purpose of the current study was to assess (a) the rates of disruptive and on-task student behaviors in middle school classrooms, overall and by academic context that included individual seatwork, group/partner work, small-group instruction, and whole-group instruction; (b) the rates of observed (appropriate and inappropriate commands, labeled and unlabeled praise, opportunities to respond; appropriate response to rule violations) and self-reported (appropriate commands, reprimands for inappropriate behavior, strategic ignoring, if/then contingencies, and send to principal’s office) CBM strategies; and (c) relationships between observed teacher strategy use and rates of disruptive and on-task behaviors. The results indicated that there was wide variability in teachers’ use of CBM strategies, their perceptions of the effectiveness of CBM strategies, and the frequency of disruptive student behavior. In addition, overall, teachers demonstrated low rates of appropriate responses to disruptive behavior. Notably, appropriate responses to disruptive behavior had the strongest association with total rates of disruptive and on-task behaviors. The implications of these findings for teacher training are discussed.

A classroom-based physical activity intervention for adolescents: Is there an effect on self-efficacy, physical activity, and on-task behavior?

BackgroundClassroom-based physical activity is a newly explored avenue for providing physical activity opportunities to children within the school, but it is one that is showing academic gains in areas such as on-task behavior. The purpose of this study was to explore the impact of pedal desks placed in high school classrooms. Three main objectives were examined: 1) the possible increase in physical activity self-efficacy among high school stu-dents in the classroom, 2) the effectiveness of pedal desks on increased physical activity among high school students, and 3) the impact of pedal desks on increasing classroom on-task behavior.Participants and procedureParticipants included 114 high school students in a traditional high school setting. All of the students were en-rolled in two Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) teachers’ classrooms. The design was quasi-experimental. Two teachers and their respective classes were randomly assigned to a treatment or control group. The study included a baseline and 2 waves. Researchers gathered demographic information of stu-dents, as well as pre- and post-data on self-efficacy and physical activity participation. On-task behavior of stu-dents was also recorded daily by researchers via momentary time sampling.ResultsThe results indicated significance for self-efficacy confidence but not barriers to physical activity participation. When examining whether self-efficacy could be connected to student heart rate, no significance was found. However, treatment students did improve their mean heart rates from baseline to treatment. This increase was significantly greater when compared to the control group.ConclusionsThis study indicates that pedal desks may be one means for feasibly increasing light physical activity during the school day. This study suggests that self-efficacy for exercise can be increased and that light intensity physical activity levels may be raised through placing pedal desks in a high school classroom. Limitations are dis-cussed.

The effect of music on the on-task behavior of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

The effect of music on the on-task behavior of students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Effects of Active Outdoor Play on Preschool Children’s on-Task Classroom Behavior

Physical activity—including outdoor motor play—has been associated with learning and brain-related functions and abilities in elementary school children and adolescence. Few studies have been conducted on the relationships between active play and these cognitive processes in preschool aged children. Several investigations have revealed that adult-directed physical activity can enhance preschoolers’ performance on measures of executive functions, such as inhibitory control or attention. In the present investigation we sought to determine if naturalistic playground play would have a similar effect to adult-guided exercise on a classroom indicator of young children’s cognitive control—on-task behavior during a whole group learning experience. The on-task behavior of 21 three-, four-, and five-year-olds was compared under two conditions—one in which children played outdoors immediately prior to the experience and one in which they did not. Too, the relationship between the level of physical activity on the playground of children and their on-task behavior directly following it was examined. Findings indicate that outdoor play prior to learning resulted in greater on-task behavior for boys and children of low socioeconomic status. Level of activity in play prior to a learning time was positively related to on-task behavior. Implications for scheduling of outdoor play and the role of teachers’ in facilitating more active motor play are discussed. Future research on a larger, more diverse sample of children is recommended.

Preschoolers Demonstrate Similar Learning And Enhanced On-task Behavior Following Physically-active Lessons On Emerging Numeracy Skills

Previous studies demonstrate variable effects of physically-active instruction on academic achievement and classroom behavior. The utility of such approaches to train the approximate number system—a foundational construct underlying later mathematics achievement—in preschoolers remains unclear. PURPOSE: To determine the acute effects of physically-active lessons on acuity of the approximate number system and on-task behavior in preschoolers. METHODS: Using a randomized within-participants repeated-measures crossover design, children (N = 51; 3-5 y) completed a computerized approximate number system task before and after engaging in either 20-min of either physically-active or conventional sedentary instruction during two separate, counterbalanced sessions. The conventional sedentary lessons consisted of activities previously shown to strengthen approximate number representations (i.e., number line estimation, counting, and magnitude estimation) at an intensity of approximately 12% heart rate reserve whereas the physically-active lessons consisted of comparable activities integrated with movement corresponding to 30% heart rate reserve. Separate univariate multi-level models were constructed. Difference in pedometer step count between conditions was analyzed using independent t-test. RESULTS: Although no significant differences were observed in behavioral task performance at posttest between conditions, F’s (2,49) ≤ 1.0, p’s ≥ 0.434, f 2’s < 0.02 [95% CI: 0 to 0.08] , fewer experimenter redirections were required following the physically-active lessons (2.5 ± 2.8) relative to following the conventional sedentary lessons (5.0 ± 3.6), F(1, 49) = 20.7, p < 0.001, f 2 = 0.61 [95% CI: 0.24 to 1.29]. On average, children accrued 931.3 ± 8.2 more steps during the physically-active lessons relative to the sedentary lessons, t(95) = 19.1, p < .001, ds = 3.91 [95% CI: 3.19 to 4.55]. CONCLUSION: Physically-active lessons on emerging numeracy skills do not impede training of the approximate number system and result in greater on-task behavior relative to conventional sedentary lessons in preschoolers. Future studies should explore the integration of such approaches into early childhood education. Funding: Supported by funds from the Department of Kinesiology at Michigan State University.

Evaluating the Impact of Token Economy Methods on Student On-task Behaviour within an Inclusive Canadian Classroom

Evaluating the Impact of Token Economy Methods on Student On-task Behaviour within an Inclusive Canadian Classroom

Interdependent Group Rewards: Rewarding On-Task Behavior Versus Academic Performance in an Eighth-Grade Classroom Serving Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

An alternating treatments design was used to evaluate and compare the effects of two interdependent group contingencies on the academic performance, on-task behavior, and disruptive behavior of eighth-grade students in a social studies class. All students were enrolled in a self-contained alternative school for students with behavior problems. Delivering rewards contingent upon participants’ average percent correct enhanced on-task behavior and percent correct on independent seatwork assignments; however, delivering rewards contingent upon participants’ on-task behavior yielded more consistent and larger increases in percent correct and on-task behavior. Neither group contingency resulted in consistent or meaningful changes in disruptive behavior. Theoretical and applied implications related to direct and indirect effects of interdependent group rewards are discussed along with directions for future research.

Effects of using a variety of kinesthetic classroom equipment on elementary students’ on-task behaviour: a pilot study

The ability for students to maintain attention to classroom instruction is a critical factor for learning because loss of instructional time due to off-task behaviour has negative impacts on academic achievement. Early studies suggest that use of kinesthetic equipment in place of traditional seating in classrooms can improve student on-task behaviour. To date, however, limitations of the kinesthetic classroom research literature include small sample sizes, often without controls, use of a single equipment type (e.g. standing desks or exercise balls) and lack of objective measures of student on-task behaviour. We report a pilot study of the impact of using a variety of kinesthetic equipment in elementary classrooms on objectively-measured student on-task behaviour.

Effect of a Time-Efficient Physical Activity Intervention on Senior School Students’ On-Task Behaviour and Subjective Vitality: the ‘Burn 2 Learn’ Cluster Randomised Controlled Trial

Despite well-established benefits, the majority of young people around the globe are not sufficiently active. In many countries, including Australia, physical activity (i.e. physical education and school sport) is not mandatory in the final two years of high school (i.e. senior school years). The aim of this study was to assess the impact of a time-efficient physical activity intervention on senior school students’ on-task behaviour and subjective vitality. This was a sub-study of the Burn 2 Learn (B2L) cluster randomised controlled trial, which included two cohorts. Participants for this sub-study (N = 221) were from 10 secondary schools (23 classes) located in New South Wales, Australia (Cohort 2). Teachers allocated to the B2L intervention group were provided with training, resources and support to facilitate the delivery of two high-intensity activity breaks per week during lesson time for five weeks. A wait-list control was used as comparison group. On-task behaviour was assessed at baseline and post-test, using a momentary time sampling procedure and expressed as a percentage of lesson time. At post-test, subjective vitality was assessed at the start and end of the lesson using a validated questionnaire. Significant group-by-time effects were observed for students’ on-task behaviour in favour of the B2L group [adjusted mean difference = 19.3% of lesson time (95% CI, 0.8 to 37.8), p = 0.042, d = 0.43]. At post-test, significant group-by-time effects were observed for students’ subjective vitality favouring the B2L group [adjusted mean difference = 0.67 units (95% CI, 0.3 to 1.0), p < 0.001, d = 0.36]. The B2L intervention was successful in improving senior school students’ on-task behaviour and their subjective vitality. These findings highlight the potential academic benefits of re-allocating curriculum time to physical activity during the senior school years.

A Multisite Study of the Effect of Fidget Spinners on Academic Performance

Fidget spinners have become popular worldwide, due not only to their popularity with children but also to the mental health claims made by those who advertise them. While a small number of previous research studies indicate that fidget spinners reduce on-task behavior, no research to date has evaluated their effect on student performance. The current study evaluated 3rd grade students to determine whether their performance on 5-min math curriculum–based measures (CBM) changed depending on whether they had access to a fidget spinner. Results indicated that student performance was lower when they were allowed to use fidget spinners than when the fidget spinner was removed. The current study suggests that fidget spinners may cause a deficit in student performance. However, the effect of fidget spinners may actually lessen as the students habituate to the objects.

High-School Students with High-Incidence Disabilities’ Use of Smartphones for Self-Monitoring

ABSTRACT Self-monitoring of attention (SMA) promotes increased learning opportunities and greater independence for students but has been sparsely researched with high-school students. This study evaluated the effects of a self-monitoring strategy that included the use of a smartphone with a vibrating app to signal high-school students with high-incidence disabilities to self-monitor on-task behavior in general education classrooms. A multiple-treatment research design was used to evaluate potential effects of this self-monitoring strategy on on-task behavior and then compare the effects of self-monitoring alone to self-monitoring with self-graphing. At least two of four participants showed moderate increases in on-task behavior when self-monitoring. Only two participants used self-graphing materials and neither showed additional increases in on-task behavior when self-graphing was used. Generalization across settings was not evident; however, treatment effects were maintained for five to seven weeks for two participants. End-of-study surveys indicated that participants and teachers found the self-monitoring intervention to be acceptable for general education settings.

Culturally Focused Classroom Staff Training to Increase Praise for Students With Autism Spectrum Disorder in Ghana

This study examined the impact of culturally focused classroom staff training on delivery of praise and its collateral effects on student on-task behavior. Training involved self-monitoring and performance feedback to promote staff delivery of culturally adapted praise to students. Four classroom staff and four students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Ghana participated in the study. The outcomes of the study were evaluated using a concurrent multiple baseline across participants (dyads) design with an ABC sequence. Results indicated that staff training using self-monitoring and performance feedback procedures successfully increased staff delivery of behavior-specific praise, but the procedures did not produce desired student outcomes. Culturally relevant adaptations to the topography of praise and implementation support were necessary to improve on-task behavior. This experiment provides an impetus for further examination of how common behavior-analytic training procedures can be culturally adapted for children with ASD in non-Western contexts.

Component Analysis of Training and Goal Setting, Self-Monitoring, and Tactile Prompting on Early Childhood Educators’ Behavior-Specific Praise

Multicomponent interventions have successfully increased early childhood teachers’ rates of behavior-specific praise (BSP); however, package interventions do not allow for nuanced examinations of intervention components. We examined the effects of an intervention package with training, goal setting, self-monitoring, and tactile prompting on early childhood teachers’ BSP rates using an add-in, multiple probe, component analysis. In addition, we measured child on-task behaviors to assess the relation between increased BSP rates and children behavior. We used visual analysis and found that each component increased teachers’ BSP rates; two out of three teacher participants needed the most intense intervention (tactile prompting) to reach mastery criterion. Variable generalized BSP statements to other children in the class occurred between baseline and intervention components. The percentage of child on-task behaviors systematically increased in relation to higher BSP rates.

Preschoolers exhibit greater on-task behavior following physically active lessons on the approximate number system.

To determine how the dual-task nature of incorporating physical activity with instructional activities immediately impacts acuity of the approximate number system and on-task behavior in preschoolers. Using a randomized within-participants repeated-measures crossover design, 51 children completed an approximate number system task before and after either 20-min of physically active instruction corresponding to 38% heart rate reserve (HRR; light-to-moderate intensity) or conventional sedentary instruction at corresponding to 21% HRR (very light intensity). Findings revealed that preschool-aged children exhibited similar learning and greater on-task behavior following a single bout of physically active instruction relative to conventional sedentary instruction. Overall, preschoolers accrued 931.3±8.2 more steps and an additional 9minutes at or above light-intensity activity during the physically active instruction. Accordingly, these findings suggest that the dual-task nature of physically active learning does not compromise learning, reduces the need for redirecting off-task behavior, and ultimately allows children to avoid sedentary behavior in educational contexts.

Dietary Quality May Play a Role in Classroom Engagement

Abstract Objectives Classroom time on task (TOT) is positively associated with academic performance. Studies have found a relationship between dietary intake and cognitive performance. This study aimed to examine the association of dietary quality with TOT. Methods Data were obtained from 3rd–5th grade students participating in TX Sprouts—a large, school-based gardening, nutrition, and cooking randomized controlled trial. Measures collected included: height, weight, and body composition via bioelectrical impedance. We assessed dietary intake via two, 24-hr dietary recalls, TOT via four, 15-min direct observations sessions, and dietary quality using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015). On-task behavior was defined as any verbal or physical behavior that followed the classroom rules or followed instructions given by the teacher. Off-task behavior was defined as any actions whereby a student was disengaged or distracted from the assigned task. Multilevel mixed-effects modeling was used to determine the association of HEI on TOT, controlling for school, class, sex, grade level, child ethnicity/race, BMI category, economically disadvantage status, and day of the week. Results The analytic sample was comprised of 478 participants (mean age 9.4 years; 53.0% male; 59.2% Hispanic; 54.2% normal weight; 64.5% FRL). Students with higher TOT scores consumed more total vegetables (b = 1.60, SE = 0.35, P &amp;lt; 0.01), more seafood and plant proteins (b = 0.85, SE = 0.26, P &amp;lt; 0.01), and more fatty acids (b = 0.72, SE = 0.17, P &amp;lt; 0.01) when compared to their counterparts. Similarly, those with higher TOT scores consumed less sodium (b = 0.55, SE = 0.16, P &amp;lt; 0.01), less refined grains (b = 0.32, SE = 0.14, P &amp;lt; 0.05), less added sugar (b = 1.15, SE = 0.19, P &amp;lt; 0.01), and less saturated fats (b = 0.35, SE = 0.15, P &amp;lt; 0.05) when compared to other students. Conclusions Findings suggest a link between dietary quality and TOT in 3rd–5th grade students. Small incremental changes in dietary quality could have implications for increased academic achievement and cognitive performance in low-income, 3rd–5th grade students. Funding Sources Supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant R01HL123865.

PENERAPAN TEKNIK SHAPING UNTUK MENINGKATKAN DURASI PERILAKU ON-TASK ANAK DENGAN MASALAH ATENSI

The aim of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the application of shaping technique with positive reinforcement, prompting, and fading technique in increasing the duration of on task-behavior in children with attention problem. The participant was AR, a 6- year-1-month-old boy who showed some behavior criteria or description of attentional disorder in interactive disorder category (ICDL-DMIC, 2005). The design in this study was a single-subject design with A-B type. The observer used a continuous recording method to measure the duration of on-task and off-task behavior when the child was working on some grade-1-level academic tasks. The result showed longer on-task behavior duration at the end of the intervention program.

Evaluating Self-Management Interventions: Analysis of Component Combinations

ABSTRACTSelf-management has been shown to be effective for increasing the on-task behaviors and decreasing the problem behaviors of students. However, little is known regarding the individual and combined effectiveness of the components of self-management. This study applied the logic of a component analysis to add the four major self-management components (goal setting, self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement) systematically in order to identify the most effective and efficient intervention package for two high school students with emotional disturbance. Results indicate differential effects with each additional component of the self-management intervention. Although positive effects of self-management were maximized with the full intervention package in place, the teachers reported a preference for a less intrusive intervention package, which was also found to be effective. Limitations and suggestions for future research are included.

Canine Assisted Occupational Therapy for Children on the Autism Spectrum: A Pilot Randomised Control Trial.

Children on the autism spectrum frequently display difficulties engaging with people and with functional tasks. A pilot, randomised control trial was completed to explore the impact of canine assisted occupational therapy on the on-task behaviours and goal attainment of autistic children when compared to occupational therapy sessions as usual. Twenty-two children between the ages of 4, and 6years and 11 months, were randomly placed in either the treatment group (n-11) or waitlist control group (n = 11). Results showed that although there was a positive trend for on-task behaviour and goal attainment within the treatment group, results were not statistically significant. These results support the need for further research in the area of canine assisted occupational therapy for autistic children.

Teaching Social Skills in Physical Education: A Self-Management Package Intervention

Self-management (SM) interventions in which students manage their own behaviors are well documented as effective and socially and ecologically valid strategies for enhancing students’ social skills in the classroom. Despite the strong empirical support for SM interventions in general and special education settings, only a few SM studies have been conducted in physical education settings. In this study, we used a multiple baseline design across behaviors to examine the effects of a self-management intervention package implemented within a second-grade physical education class on three social skills of four participants: (a) cooperation, (b) impulsivity, and (c) persistence. We also collected data on (a) a physical education task referred to as correct lags and (b) on-task behavior. Results suggest a functional relation between the SM package intervention and the students’ social skills.