Onshore Activities Research Articles

Cruise visitors' experience in a Mediterranean port of call

AbstractThis study aims to provide a better understanding on cruise travel experience by studying cruise ship passengers motivation, satisfaction and likelihood of return to the port of Heraklion (Crete, Greece). From the findings, it is evident that ‘exploration’ and ‘escape’ were among the main motivations of visitors, and ‘product and services’ as well as ‘tour pace’ were significant dimensions in shaping overall satisfaction levels. Nevertheless, onshore activities were restricted to sightseeing and shopping, because of the limited available time. Based on these findings, relevant proposals are made in order to provide positive port experiences. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Environmental change and human impacts on terrestrial ecosystems of the sub-Antarctic islands between their discovery and the mid-twentieth century

Sub-Antarctic islands share many similarities in their history of human interaction and impacts before the mid-twentieth century. Large impacts on land were associated with marine exploitation industries of sealing and whaling. Their onshore activities involved considerable construction and pollution in many accessible landing bays, inevitably destroying large areas of coastal terrestrial habitat. Considerable transfer of nutrients to terrestrial environments will have been associated with scavengers utilising large carrion supplies. Attempted establishment of agricultural industries, particularly the introduction of grazing mammals, took place on several islands and, although rarely proving economically viable, often resulted in the long-term creation of feral populations. These were accompanied by introductions of other alien vertebrates, plants and invertebrates to most sub-Antarctic islands, although precise records of introduction events, or subsequent biological studies in this period, largely do not exist. Thus, exploitation industries in this region inevitably led to considerable alterations and impacts to terrestrial ecosystems almost from the outset of human contact with the islands. In the absence of baseline ecological and biodiversity studies, the true magnitude of many of these impacts is difficult to assess, although their legacy continues to the present day. Indeed, the almost complete removal of fur seals may have allowed coastal vegetation to become more extensive and lush than hitherto, paradoxically now regarded as typical and threatened by recovery of seal populations.

Overview: Health, Safety and Environment (July 2007)

In March, professionals from many countries gathered in Galveston, Texas, for the biennial SPE E&P Environmental and Safety Conference. Although this conference has included some safety papers in the past, this time safety was one of the featured themes. The industry's safety experts presented many excellent papers, several of which are featured here. Likewise, the conference included many fine papers on environmental topics. Each day, the media bring us stories about climate change. Most scientists now agree that the climate is getting warmer and that human activities, including combustion of fossil fuels, are contributing to the warming. Although the international community has not reached consensus on the causes of and the solutions to the warming trend, even some previously reluctant executives and politicians are joining the call for some type of action. The oil and gas community has contributed and will continue to contribute information and research on ways to mitigate the warming trend. Many good papers on carbon dioxide capture and storage were presented during the past year. The health and safety of oil industry workers remains a priority for industry managers. Even routine operations, such as driving trucks or unloading work-boats, pose risks that must be evaluated and addressed. One of the featured papers describes the important work of an industry task force in identifying and compiling recommended land-transportation practices to protect workers. During late 2005, Hurricanes Katrina and Rita moved through the Gulf of Mexico, creating major disruptions of offshore and onshore activities in the area. Numerous platforms were damaged. The occurrence of two large and violent storms in a high-petroleum-activity area points out the risks of working in the offshore environment. Much of the damage has been repaired or removed. Several papers this year describe the devastation caused by the storms as well as the measures taken by the industry for coping with future storms. Health, Safety, and Environment additional reading available at the SPE eLibrary: www.spe.org. SPE 106827 "OGP Land-Transport-Safety Recommended Practice: An Industry Standard for Land-Transport Safety" by Derek Tate, SPE, Schlumberger SPE 106610 "Mercury-Removal System for Upstream Application: Experience in Treating Mercury From Raw Condensate" by Muhamad Rashid Sainal, Petronas Carigali, et al. SPE 106697 "Security Is Everybody's Business: Transforming Security Into a Core Business Practice in the HSE Model" by Stephen B. Simmons, ExxonMobil, et al. SPE 106913 "An Innovative Utilization of Drilling Wastes as Building Materials" by Ta-Lin Chen, National Cheng Kung University, et al.

Comparative Phosphorus Sorption by Marine Sediments and Agricultural Soils in a Tropical Environment

The influence of soil phosphorus (P) sources on P sorption characteristics of marine sediments was investigated for Pearl Harbor and off shore Molokai in Hawaii. Estuary sediments were sampled in seven locations; these represented different soils and on-shore activities. The soil samples included nine major soils that contributed sediment to the Harbor and coastal sediments near the island of Molokai. Sediment and soil samples were equilibrated for 6 days in 0.01 M CaCl2 solution and synthetic seawater containing differing amounts of P. Phosphorus sorption curves were constructed. The equilibrated solution P, with no P added, ranged from 0.01 to 0.2 mg L−1; P sorption by sediments at standard solution concentration 0.2 mg L−1, ranged from 0 to 230 mg kg−1. Sediment P sorption corresponded closely with soil sorption characteristics. Soils contributing sediments to the west reach of Pearl Harbor are highly weathered Oxisols with high standard P sorption values while those in the southeast of the Harbor were Vertisols and Mollisols which sorb little P. The influence of source materials on sediment P sorption was also observed for off-shore sediments near Molokai. Sediments serve as both source and sink for P in Pearl Harbor and in this role can be a stabilizing influence on P concentration in the water column. Phosphorus sorption curves in conjunction with water quality data can help to understand P dynamics between sediments and the water column and help evaluate concerns about P loading to a water body. For Pearl Harbor, solution P in equilibrium with sediments from the Lochs was 0.021 mg L−1; a value unlikely to produce an algal bloom. (Measured total P in the water columns (mean) was 0.060.)

On the Integration of Logistics Activities by Shipping Lines: The Case of East-Asia

In the 1990s, following the challenges imposed by globalisation, the liner shipping industry experienced profound changes, leading major carriers to create ad-hoc logistics business-units. Nevertheless the vertical integration of shipping lines along the transport chain faced important entry barriers in various regions.This paper aims at analysing the impact of such barriers on carriers’ pathways of expansion in the logistics business. It mainly focuses on the East-Asian market, as a relevant empirical case in which important institutional and socio-political obstacles are still in force .Main results disclose sui-generis paths of expansion achieved by major carriers, in contrast with linear constructs of time and space proposed by classical TNC theories. In such respect, port operations reveal to be the most critical stage of the chain. The ‘sidestep’ of the port phase, leading to investments in other on-shore activities (warehousing, inland terminals, etc.) as well as the implementation of aggressive financial campaigns (acquisitions and takeovers), reveal the unfaltering will of top shipping lines: the quick achievement of a successful vertical and horizontal expansion despite environmental obstacles.

Developments in UK shipping: the tonnage tax

The new UK Government, elected in May 1997, came to power with a commitment to reverse the decline of the UK shipping industry and enhance the employment prospects of UK seafarers. The Government commissioned Lord Alexander of Weedon to investigate the case for a tonnage tax. In this paper, the economic arguments for supporting the UK shipping industry are reviewed. There is some evidence that the UK holds a comparative advantage in world markets in key sectors of the shipping industry and on-shore maritime related activities, but is being undermined by lower foreign taxes. In the absence of government support, the UK shipping industry is likely to continue to decline, and, by further reducing the supply of qualified UK ex-seafarers, put at risk the successful on-shore activities. Various measures that might be used to support a national shipping industry, e.g. a tonnage tax, are considered. The paper concludes by discussing the likely impact of the tonnage tax on the UK's shipping industry.

Coastal modification due to human influence in south-western Taiwan

The coastal zone of southwest Taiwan is characterised by muddy tidal flats, offshore bars, spits, lagoons and coastal sand dunes. These geomorphic features from an essential part of the natural defences against sea-level change and coastal erosion. Between 1955 and 1995 the area bounded by the Pei-Kang and Tseng-Wen rivers underwent considerable land use and topographic changes. Two examples were studied using time-series aerial photographs, remote sensing images and geomorphological field mapping. The result of this investigation demonstrates the influence of human activities and the importance of the natural coastal landscape in acting as a first-line of coastal defence and protection in Taiwan. Attention is drawn to: (1) inappropriately designed or misplaced coastal engineering structures which may destroy or reduce the effectiveness of neighbouring natural and engineered structures leading to storm damage, flooding and encroachment by the sea; (2) the need for a co-ordinated coastal management program to regulate on-shore activities, in particular the removal of ground water within the coastal zone. This research demonstrates that there is significant land subsidence and inland penetration of sea water into the ground water system in the coastal zone. Human activities also lead to considerable financial expenditure on the prevention of coastal erosion in Taiwan.

Task Force on Oil Spill Preparedness: A Canadian On-Shore Evaluation

ABSTRACT The oil industry's ability to effectively contain and clean up oil spills has been questioned over the years, and recent events have heightened this concern. Growing public interest and efforts by the upstream oil industry in Canada to assess its operations resulted in formation of the Task Force on Oil Spill Preparedness. The study was sponsored by the Canadian Petroleum Association and the Independent Petroleum Association of Canada, which represent most companies in the upstream industry. The overall evaluation concentrates on both onshore and offshore activities, but this paper discusses only the onshore segment. In the past 40 years the industry has made substantial efforts to prevent oil spills. As a result, Canada has experienced no catastrophic oil spills in operating about 40,000 producing wells and 37,000 km of oil pipelines. In spite of these efforts, the industry believes there is room for improvement. The study recommends allocating more resources to improving equipment, training on-site personnel, establishing better communications within companies and between companies and regulatory agencies, and continuing research in oil spill countermeasures. These recommendations are being incorporated in the existing framework to improve the response capability of the upstream oil industry.

Permitting California Outer Continental Shelf Petroleum Development Projects

Summary. Permitting California Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) development activities is a costly, time-consuming, and complex process. Because both federal acreage and California state acreage are involved in offshore development and associated onshore facilities, both federal and state environmental and permitting requirements must be met. Literally years of review by numerous regulatory agencies are required before the project may proceed. Delays and expenses generated by the permitting process adversely proceed. Delays and expenses generated by the permitting process adversely affect project economics. The need for large amounts of technical information early in the process alters the normal evolution of project design. Finally, restrictions and constraints imposed by regulatory agencies affect all aspects of the project and ultimately determine project viability. Introduction California's populace consistently expresses a strong concern for protection of the environment. This concern manifests itself in the form of state and local laws designed to manage and to reduce the environmental effects of development of any kind, including oil development. In the exploratory phase of lease operations resulting from Pacific OCS Lease Sales 68 and 53, permitting problems were minimal. This relative ease of permitting problems were minimal. This relative ease of permitting resulted because exploratory operations occurred almost exclusively on federal land; thus state agencies had limited influence regarding these activities. As exploration leads to discoveries, and ultimately to development, state and local governments enter the picture, vastly compounding permitting difficulties. permitting difficulties. The California OCS permitting process is continually evolving to accommodate public pressure and political realities. The level of time, effort, and expense required to permit an OCS development project, along with the restrictions accompanying such permits, is now viewed as a major constraint to OCS development in California waters. Current permitting procedures, along with some of the problems this process creates, are outlined. ThePermitting Process OCS development activities where onshore facilities are a part of the development require the approval of various federal, state, and local government authorities before the development project may proceed. Two separate but substantially similar laws govern the major portion of environmental review of OCS projects: the Natl. Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which applies to the federal or OCS portion of the development; and the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), which governs development areas under the State of California's jurisdiction, including onshore and activities up to 3 miles [4.8 km] offshore. Both laws require that the government agency most directly responsible for regulating major development activities, the "lead agency," select an independent party to prepare an assessment of environmental impacts party to prepare an assessment of environmental impacts associated with the proposed project. NEPA refers to this assessment as an environmental impact statement (EIS), while CEQA calls the document an environmental impact report (EIR). Because OCS development includes both offshore (federal) and onshore (state) activities, both laws are triggered. In theory, two separate documents should be prepared by separate lead agencies; however, because all parties involved recognize the redundancy, interagency agreements have led to the creation of the Joint Review Panel (JRP) and the joint EIS/EIR. Panel (JRP) and the joint EIS/EIR. The JRP consists of representatives of the major permitting agencies involved in OCS development: the permitting agencies involved in OCS development: the Minerals Management Service (MMS), the State Lands Commission, the California Coastal Commission, and the county where the onshore activity (such as a processing facility) is proposed. The MMS acts as the NEPA lead agency, and the county acts as the CEQA lead agency; however, a single environmental review document, the EIS/EIR, is prepared to conform to the requirements of both laws. The JRP has control over the parameters of the environmental study and the adequacy of the produced document. Permitting authorities use this document to identify and to mitigate potential adverse environmental effects of the project, and ultimately to judge whether the project will be allowed to proceed. project will be allowed to proceed. Because OCS development activities tend to be proximate in both area (multilease-sized structures) and time proximate in both area (multilease-sized structures) and time (because most leases in a given area are usually sold in a single lease sale, exploration and production occur in a similar time period), the MMS has chosen to analyze all proposed and potential development activities in an area with a single "area-wide" document. This document has the advantage of considering potential cumulative impacts of all probable OCS development in a given area. An areawide EIS/EIR has been prepared for each of the last three major California OCS development areas-the southern, central, and northern Santa Maria basin areas. JPT P. 713

U. S. Oil and Gas Finding and Development Costs, 1973-82 -Lower 48 Onshore and Offshore

Summary This paper presents and discusses the results of two very different methods of estimating oil and gas finding and development costs. The first method derives surrogate finding costs from the proved reserve additions and revisions reported during a given year and the reported expenditures in the same year. The second method derives ultimate finding costs from the estimated ultimate reserves applicable to a discovery year with all past, current, and future costs for finding and developing those reserves. The calculations for both methods use published data on oil and gas reserves and on the costs of acquiring, exploring, and developing oil and gas properties for the period 1973–82. All data are based on onshore and offshore period 1973–82. All data are based on onshore and offshore activities in the lower 48 states. An expenditures lag model is used in the second method to adjust expenditures by lag and lead times to approximate a match with the reserves discovered and developed over each period. The model captures additional information that is relevant to current planning and analysis by showing the expenditure phases that usually are masked in incurred expenditure data. For instance, incurred exploration costs peak in 1981, then decline, while lagged data show a continuing rise through 1982. The data also show a continuing increase in incurred development expenditures, while lagged expenditures peaked in 1980, then declined. Introduction Development of U.S. oil and gas reserves depends on the profitability of the industry, which in turn depends on profitability of the industry, which in turn depends on many factors, including sales prices for oil and gas and the costs of finding, developing, and producing reserves. Finding and development costs for oil and gas reserves affect investment levels and are important to investors, company managers, and policy makers. These costs, while important, are elusive because reliable data on past and future discoveries are not available and because costs are not matched properly with discoveries, Discussion of Definitions There is no generally accepted definition of finding costs, nor is there an agreed-upon method for determining the costs that should be included in the computation. Finding costs ideally would include all costs of acquiring properties, exploring, and developing the reserves discovered. properties, exploring, and developing the reserves discovered. The reserves preferably should be matched with the costs incurred for those reserves. However, estimating finding costs is difficult for the following reasons. Reserve Estimation The estimation of ultimate reserves is imprecise. Recoverable reserves from a reservoir are known only when all quantities have been recovered and the property ceases to produce, which occurs long after exploration and development concludes. Reserve estimates are least reliable at the discovery date and must be revised continually over the productive life of the property. Equivalency of Oil and Gas Unit finding costs depend on a unit of measure that converts crude oil, condensate, natural gas, and natural-gas liquids (NGL) to a common basis in crude-oil-equivalent barrels. Because these products vary in energy content, quality, and sales prices, products vary in energy content, quality, and sales prices, equivalency does not exist. Significant differences in finding costs can result solely from use of different units of equivalency and the mix of oil and gas. Royalties Finding costs depend on the positions of those who make the computation. From the producer's viewpoint, finding costs are based on exploration and development costs divided by the quantities of reserves that accrue to his benefit after the deduction of royalties. The producer's profitability depends on recovery of costs from producer's profitability depends on recovery of costs from less than 100% of the discovered reserves. From a national viewpoint, unit finding costs are lower because costs are spread over a greater number of units, including royalty units. Exploration, Development, or Both Many have viewed finding cogs associated with the exploration phase as a better measure of the true cost of finding reserves. However, the development work that follows through extensions also may result in reserve additions. The development work may prove that the initial estimates were too high in other cases, so downward revisions are needed. With only exploration costs considered, we did not feel that the costs would truly reflect the financial commitment needed to find and to develop reserves. JPT p. 2040

The Pattern of Oil Impact on Affected Scottish Rural Areas

Most of the onshore activities associated with North Sea Oil developments have been located in essentially rural regions of Scotland. The wide varieties of regional and oil activity characteristics have led to a research emphasis on the diversity of oil impacts on affected areas. Using empirical evidence, this paper demonstrates that there are underlying similarities in the pattern of oil impact on Scottish rural areas. It is argued that this arises from a fundamental technological 4mismatch, between the supply capabilities of the indigenous rural economy and the demand requirements of the oil industry. It is suggested that this mismatch is exacerbated by a lack of information exchange between the local and oil sectors.