Pepper Spray Research Articles

An Unintended Side Effect of Pepper Spray

This article tells the story of how pepper spray disrupted the everyday ways of being military men in a Swedish Armed Forces unit. It aims to show how military men are done and undone in the context of a highly strenuous military exercise. It is based on an ethnographic study carried out in a Swedish international service unit. The analysis shows how the exercise taught the soldiers how to behave as military men. Furthermore, it discusses the intimate forms of camaraderie that the soldiers practice and problematizes the scene of constraint that compulsory heterosexuality constitutes for their homosocial bonds. Theoretically, the article draws upon studies of men and masculinities and employs the concepts of homosociality and compulsory heterosexuality. By developing “repair work” as an analytical tool, it contributes to an understanding of how masculinities are done within, as well as beyond, the military context.

Emergency Management of Chemical Weapons Injuries

The potential for chemical weapons to be used in terrorism is a real possibility. Classes of chemical weapons include nerve agents, vesicants (blister agents), choking agents, incapacitating agents, riot control agents, blood agents, and toxic industrial chemicals. The nerve agents work by blocking the actions of acetylcholinesterase leading to a cholinergic syndrome. Nerve agents include sarin, tabun, VX, cyclosarin, and soman. The vesicants include sulfur mustard and lewisite. The vesicants produce blisters and also damage the upper airways. Choking agents include phosgene and chlorine gas. Choking agents cause pulmonary edema. Incapacitating agents include fentanyl and its derivatives and adamsite. Riot control agents include Mace and pepper spray. Blood agents include cyanide. The mechanism of toxicity for cyanide is blocking oxidative phosphorylation. Toxic industrial chemicals include agents such as formaldehyde, hydrofluoric acid, and ammonia.

Conjunctival Proliferation After a Mild Pepper Spray Injury in a Young Child

To report a case of conjunctival proliferation in a 2.5-year-old boy after initial evidence of a mild chemical injury after ocular exposure to pepper spray (oleoresin capsicum). Case report with ophthalmologic and histologic findings. A child presented with mild conjunctival injection and chemosis without any corneal erosion after direct exposure to pepper spray. Three weeks later, a significant conjunctival proliferation was found at the limbus, which was refractory to treatment with topical corticosteroids. Finally, proliferative tissue was surgically excised without clinical recurrence during 2 months of follow-up. We hypothesize that the young age of the patient may have been an important factor for the severe conjunctival proliferation in comparison to a mainly uncomplicated course of pepper spray injuries in most adults. We recommend the use of topical antiinflammatory treatment even in apparently mild pepper spray injuries, especially in young children.

Evaluation of a mixture of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, and capsicum oleoresin for improving growth performance and metabolizable energy in broiler chicks fed corn and soybean meal

SUMMARY The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a mixture of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, and capsicum oleoresin (XT, Pancosma S.A., Geneva, Switzerland) on the MEn of cornsoybean meal diets for broilers (experiment 1) and to confirm the energy effect in a growth performance trial (experiment 2). For experiment 1, 12 replicate groups of 5 chicks were assigned to each of the 4 treatments in a 2 × 2 factorial design. Factor 1 was diet type [corn-soybean meal or corn-soybean meal with 10% corn distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS)]. Factor 2 was XT (0 vs. 100 mg/kg of XT). Diets were fed from 1 to 22 d. For experiment 2, chicks were fed a corn-soybean meal diet (no DDGS) from 9 to 34 d of age. Two factors were again organized in a complete 2 × 2 factorial design. Factor 1 was dietary MEn content (3,000 vs. 2,950 kcal of MEn/kg), and factor 2 was XT (0 vs. 100 mg of XT/kg). For experiment 1, from d 1 to 8, XT significantly increased BW gain (P < 0.05). The XT also significantly increased MEn content at 22 d, with the increase being 68 kcal/kg for the corn-soybean meal diet with no DDGS. The 90% CI for the 68 kcal/kg value was 50 to 86 kcal/kg. The latter is the reason the value of 50 kcal/kg was selected as the energy difference between diets in experiment 2. The decrease in MEn from 3,000 to 2,950 kcal/kg significantly depressed BW gain (2.4%) and G:F (2.1%). Conversely, XT significantly increased BW gain (2.4%) and G:F (2.3%). We observed that a 100 mg/kg mixture of carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, and capsicum oleoresin increased the dietary MEn of the corn-soybean meal diet. The MEn value of 50 kcal/kg for 100 mg of XT/kg corresponded to the lower limit of the 90% CI and was confirmed in a growth performance trial.

PELARGONIC ACID VANILYLLAMIDE (PAVA): RIOT CONTROL AGENT

Summary Riot control agents are highly potent sensory irritants of relatively low toxicity that produce dose and time-dependent acute site-specific toxicity. These compounds have been referred to as transient incapacitating agents or as lacrimators, and in common parlance they are known as tear gases. These compounds interact pharmacologically with sensory nerve receptors associated with mucosal surfaces and the skin at the site of contamination, resulting in localized discomfort or pain with associated reflexes. This biological response, e.g. ocular irritation, results in pain in the eye and excess reflex lacrimation and blepharospasm. Riot control agents have both civil and military applications and have been classified as either military chemicals or chemical warfare agents. Non-lethal or less lethal weapons have become increasingly popular for law enforcement use when confronting dangerous, combative individuals in the field, include riot control agents. Many incapacitating agents were developed during the Cold War. Oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray, an extracted resin from Capsicum pepper plants, was first developed in the 1970s as an alternative to CS (2-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile) and CN (chloroacetophenone) agents. Most recently, a synthetic form of capsaicin, PAVA (pelargonic acid vanillylamide), gained popularity as a defensive aerosol in the early 1990s. Chemical, pharmacological, and toxicological properties of PAVA are discussed in this paper.

Effects of dietary plant-derived phytonutrients on the genome-wide profiles and coccidiosis resistance in the broiler chickens

BackgroundThe present study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary plant-derived phytonutrients, carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde and Capsicum oleoresin, on the translational regulation of genes associated with immunology, physiology and metabolism using high-throughput microarray analysis and in vivo disease challenge model of avian coccidiosis.MethodsIn this study, we used nutrigenomics technology to investigate the molecular and genetic mechanisms of dietary modulation of host innate immunity and metabolism by three phytonutrients. To validate their immunomodulatory effects in a disease model, young broiler chickens fed a standard diet supplemented with three phytochemicals (carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, and Capsicum oleoresin) from one day post-hatch were orally challenged with E. acervulina. The body weight gain and fecal oocyst production were used to evaluate coccidiosis disease parameters.ResultsAnalysis of global gene expression profiles of intestinal tissues from phytonutrient-fed birds indicated that Capsicum oleoresin induced the most gene changes compared to the control group where many of these genes were associated with those of metabolism and immunity. The most reliable network induced by dietary cinnamaldehyde treatment was related with the functions of antigen presentation, humoral immune response, and inflammatory disease. Furthermore, dietary supplementation with these phytonutrients significantly protected broiler chickens against live coccidiosis challenge infection based on body weight and parasite fecundity.ConclusionsThe results of this study provide clear evidence to support the idea that plant-derived phytochemicals possess immune-enhancing properties in chickens and these new findings create a new possibility to develop effective drug-free alternative strategies for disease control for poultry infectious diseases.

Effect of dietary plant extracts mixture on pork meat quality

The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of a plant extracts mixture including carvacrol (oregano), cinnamaldehyde (cinnamom), and capsicum oleoresin (Mexican pepper) on the meat quality of pigs. The study was carried out on 60 pigs, divided into two groups (control and experimental), 30 pigs each. The control group was given a basal diet and the experimental group (XT group) received the basal diet supplemented with 80 mg/kg (XT). The fattening of pigs was carried out from a body weight of 30 to 100 kg. The pigs XT group had a lower M. longissimus dorsi (LD) electrical conductivity at 24 hour post-mortem, lower drip loss and cooking loss from the LD muscle, however, had a higher water holding capacity and a* values (redness) in the fresh meat. The plant extracts significantly increased the sensory quality of the fresh meat and the cooked meat.

Effects of dietary supplementation with phytonutrients on vaccine-stimulated immunity against infection with Eimeria tenella

Two phytonutrient mixtures, VAC (carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, and Capsicum oleoresin), and MC (Capsicum oleoresin and turmeric oleoresin), were evaluated for their effects on chicken immune responses following immunization with an Eimeria profilin protein. Chickens were fed with a non-supplemented diet, or with VAC- or MC-supplemented diets, immunized with profilin, and orally challenged with virulent oocysts of Eimeria tenella. Immunity against infection was evaluated by body weight, fecal oocyst shedding, profilin antibody levels, lymphocyte recall responses, cytokine expression, and lymphocyte subpopulations. Following immunization and infection, chickens fed the VAC- or MC-supplemented diets showed increased body weights, greater profilin antibody levels, and/or greater lymphocyte proliferation compared with non-supplemented controls. Prior to Eimeria infection, immunized chickens on the MC-supplemented diet showed reduced IFN-γ and IL-6 levels, but increased expression of TNFSF15, compared with non-supplemented controls. Post-infection levels of IFN-γ and IL-6 were increased, while IL-17F transcripts were decreased, with MC-supplementation. For VAC-supplemented diets, decreased IL-17F and TNFSF15 levels were observed only in infected chickens. Finally, immunized chickens fed the MC-supplemented diet exhibited increased MHC class II+, CD4+, CD8+, TCR1+, or TCR2+ T cells compared with nonsupplemented controls. Animals on the VAC-containing diet only displayed an increase in K1+ macrophages. In conclusion, dietary supplementation with VAC or MC alters immune parameters following recombinant protein vaccination against avian coccidiosis.

Characterization of Capsaicin-Loaded Nanoemulsions Stabilized with Alginate and Chitosan by Self-assembly

The objectives of this research were to characterize capsaicin-loaded nanoemulsions stabilized with natural biopolymer such as alginate and chitosan for use as a functional ingredient delivery system. The biopolymer nanoemulsion was prepared using self-assembly emulsification methods, and the capsaicin included oleoresin capsicum as the core material in the nanoemulsion. The particle sizes of the double-layer nanoemulsions prepared with alginate (AN) and chitosan (CN) were 20 nm or lower. The triple-layer nanoemulsion, which was prepared by complexation with chitosan and alginate (CAN), was successfully prepared with particle sizes on the nanoscale through the electrostatic interactions between the carboxylic groups and amine groups of the biopolymers. The Zeta potential value, which is an indicator of the overall stability and physicochemical properties of the nanoemulsion, of AN and CN were significantly higher than SN and CAN (p < 0.01). In conclusion, the double-layer nanoemulsions incorporated with alginate and chitosan can be expected to improve the stability of nanoemulsion. In addition, this system holds promise for use in the production of functional foods containing functional ingredients.

Chunks of Ugly

Chunks of Ugly Ben Langston (bio) I. Marvin was a crack baby. This isn't an insult. He really was a crack baby. His mother used crack daily. And inside her, he was altered, addicted. That Freudian saying about how men spend their entire lives trying to get back in the womb—imagine how he felt. Right now I'm looking through the wired safety-glass window of Marvin's observation cell. It's solitary confinement (the bucket, in jail-speak). I, in my state-issued prison-guard uniform, am looking baggy and cheap. I've got these official-looking patches on the shoulders of my gray shirt. Long sleeves mean winter. Winter means a required black tie. Clip-on, so you can't be choked. The black pants are wrong. The crotch is closer to the knees than to the crotch. Above the washing directions, the tags read, "Made by Inmate Labor." Every jail (joint, in jail-speak) works the inmates. This one has a cannery, a leather shop, and cows. Big House Industries, that's the brand name. Inmates pack beans and corn into industrial-sized cans. They make belts and purses. And they used to eat the cows. Now the cows are for show. They're here so the state doesn't take the jail's land—use it or lose it. Plus it gives inmates something to do. A few low-risk inmates get taken down every day to shovel out the barn and serve up inmate-grown hay. The cows, though, they don't do anything. Hauling themselves to the trough is the only exercise they get. Once they escaped, but stood outside the fence, waiting, I guess, for dinner. I'm watching Marvin. He's strapped down flat on his back. Marvin, in his state-issued, suicide-resistant gold smock, is looking sick and cold. The [End Page 55] smock's a sack. Holes cut for his head and arms—triple stitched for strength. He's immobilized. Five-point restraints, it's called. Number four on the Use of Force Continuum. It falls before lethal force and right after the use of chemical munitions (jail-speak for pepper spray). This is punishment for breaking the rules in jail. He painted his cell with his shit—the window's still streaked. So now he's in the jail of the jail. This is it for Marvin. This is as good as it's going to get. At least here he gets some attention. From birth, Marvin was taken into state custody and placed—more like deposited—in foster homes his entire life. He was raised—more like stored—in a dozen different homes until he was old enough to go to jail. At 25, he stands four feet six inches tall. He has the mentality of a 15-year-old. This crack baby, this product of pollution, this seven-year resident of a state correctional facility, is a convicted arsonist. Inside Marvin's cell, there are no sheets or blankets. His comforts are his smock, his mattress, and the torso, leg, and arm straps attached to the bolted-to-the-floor bunk frame. Every few hours he's flipped—it takes six guards. Five to flip, one to videotape. The walls of his cell are at odd angles, as if the cell was an afterthought during the building process. There's a cluster of these cells all pointed at the guards' station (the bubble, in jail-speak), so we can sit and watch—when we're not flipping. These cells aren't just for the Marvins of the world. A week's worth of observation-cell vacation's only five whispered words away: "I'm going to hurt myself." They have this policy, jails do, that requires observation for anybody suicidal—fakers or not. Guys break down in jail. It happens. Rape victims, guys who lose fights, and guys who come up hot (jail-speak for positive) for incurable STDs are all given timeouts here—to rest—to be looked at every 15 minutes, suicide watch. These cells are for them. Except during football season. Then they're for the guys who can't pay...

Studies on the role of gelatin as a cryo- and lyo-protectant in the stability of capsicum oleoresin nanocapsules in gelatin matrix

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of freezing process in the absence or presence of excipients on the stability of capsicum loaded nanocapsules (NC) during freeze-thawing and freeze-drying procedures. Capsicum loaded nanocapsules were prepared by the modified-emulsion–diffusion method combined with the microfluidization method. The prepared samples were frozen at freezing temperatures of −40, −20, and −15 °C to study the effects of cooling temperature on the properties of the capsicum oleoresin loaded nanoparticles. From results, a relatively high freezing temperature had an effect on the maintenance of nanocapsule size after freeze-thawing and freeze-drying. Regarding the addition of excipients, gelatin and κ-carrageenan played roles as cryoprotectants and lyoprotectants, and represented R values of 1.01 and 1.13 in size comparisons before and after treatment, respectively. Furthermore, the morphologies of NC made with gelatin or κ-carrageenan were conserved after freeze-drying showing spherical forms according to electron microscope observations.

Equilibrium data for the separation of oleoresin capsicum using supercritical CO 2: A theoretical design of a countercurrent gas extraction column

Oleoresin capsicum (OR Cap) is the commercial liquid product obtained after the solvent extraction of peppers ( Capsicum annuum L.). With high content of lipid matter and a noticeable amount of pigments, such as capsaicinoids and carotenoids, oleoresin capsicum is usually used in food industry. Besides, if an enrichment of carotenoids and capsaicinoids is reached, many applications in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry can be covered by the products obtained. In this work, the fractionation of oleoresin capsicum using supercritical CO 2 countercurrent extraction was studied to obtain an extract enriched in capsaicinoids and a raffinate enriched in carotenoids. Moreover, the separation column was designed. Phase equilibrium of the system CO 2–oleoresin capsicum was determined along the interval of temperature (314–338 K) and pressures (90–310 bar), and samples of both phases were analytically characterized. Due to the inadequacy of the binary approach to study the separation problem, a pseudoternary approach was selected and oleoresin capsicum was described by two pseudocompounds according to its distribution coefficients. At 337.8 K and 206 bar a maximum selectivity of 5.6 between the pseudocompound enriched in capsaicinoids and the pseudocompound enriched in carotenoids was obtained. This fact showed that countercurrent gas separation could be employed and could be economically interesting. The column design was performed according to two different short-cut methods and different separation parameters, such as the number of theoretical stages ( n th), the reflux ratio ( ν) and the solvent-to-feed ratio ( S/ F), were calculated. Jänecke method presented the best result according to the change in composition along the separation column. Finally, the minimum diameter of the column to be designed, which is necessary to avoid flooding conditions, was also calculated for different packings.

Measurement and modeling of the high-pressure phase equilibria of CO 2-Oleoresin Capsicum

Oleoresin Capsicum is one of the most important sources of natural colorants with a lot of applications in food industry due to its carotenoids concentration. With high content of lipid matter and a noticeable amount of capsaicinoids, Oleoresin Capsicum can also be used in pharmaceutical industry or for self-defense sprays. In this work, the phase equilibrium of Oleoresin Capsicum in supercritical carbon dioxide was measured by a recirculation method at pressures between 90 and 315 bar and temperatures of 314.7, 326.4 and 337.8 K. The experimental data were correlated using Soave–Redlich–Kwong (SRK) equation of state with Mathias–Klotz–Prausnitz as mixing rule, and binary interaction parameters were obtained. Moreover, the prediction of the pseudo-binary system CO 2/Oleoresin Capsicum was carried out with the Group Contribution Equation of State (GC-EoS), using the set of binary group parameters established in a previous work. For all isotherms studied, the solubility of Oleoresin Capsicum in the gaseous phase and that of CO 2 in the liquid phase increases with an increase in pressure. Comparison between experimental data and those correlated by SRK or predicted by GC-EoS, shows that SRK correlation produced better fittings of the experimental data. Nevertheless, the importance of data predicted by GC-EoS is based on the possibility to obtain an approximation to the thermodynamic behaviour of the real systems without the necessity of experimental data.

Efficacy of Capsicum Oleoresin Nanocapsules Formulation by the Modified Emulsion-Diffusion Method

In this study, we investigated the effect of high pressure homogenizer on the physico-chemical properties of capsicum oleoresin loaded nanoemulsion (NE) or nanocapsules (NCs) based on the emulsion-diffusion method. According to the application stage of high pressure process at principle emulsion-diffusion method, NCs was prepared by conventional-emulsion-diffusion method (CED), modified-emulsion-microfluidization-diffusion method (MEMD) and modified-emulsion-diffusion-microfluidization method (MEDM). The nanocapsules of MEMD showed homogeneous and the smallest particle size as compared with CED. In addition, MEMD presented the surface tension at the value 36.5 mN/m. The encapsulated capsicum oleoresin was generated the bright color and suppressed the dark red color. Furthermore, MEMD gave the high encapsulation efficiency of capsicum oleoresin around 95% and showed the slow release rate. On the other hand, MEDM presented the non-homogeneous and agglomerate of the particle, low percentage of encapsulation efficiency and the high initial release rate when compared with CED and MEMD methods. According these results, it was supposed that the microfluidization was interesting technique to ameliorate the physical properties and efficiency of NCs. However, it was depending on the appropriate combination of microfluidization based on the emulsion-diffusion method.

P5 Airway responsiveness measurements in asthmatic recruits to emergency services

Asthmatics undertaking emergency service work are thought to be at increased risk of severe bronchoconstriction with sudden exertion or exposure to irritants such as fire smoke, pepper spray or CS...

Use of Force by Law Enforcement: An Evaluation of Safetyand Injury

Little is known about the frequency and types of injuries sustained from law enforcement use of force (UOF). The purpose of this study was to examine injury patterns and subject conditions after law enforcement UOF under real-life conditions. A retrospective cohort design was used to examine every UOF by a single police department from January through December, 2006. Data were collected from law enforcement UOF forms as well as medical records and included conditions surrounding the UOF, medical histories, and data from emergency department (ED) evaluations and hospital admissions. Of 888 individuals subjected to force during the study period, 86.9% were men and the average body mass index was 25.8. Ages ranged from 10 to 77 years; juveniles comprised 5.6%. Of the types of force used by police, 73.7% were blows with arms or legs; 15.9% were Taser, 4.6% were capsicum spray, 1.7% were K-9, 0.7% were impact weapons, and 0.2% were firearms. Of the 630 (70.9%) with medical records, 78.7% had a substance abuse or psychiatric history. ED evaluations occurred for 187 (21.1% of) incidents. When laboratory workup occurred, 75.5% had positive urine toxicology and 45.9% had positive ethanol levels. Admission occurred in 15.5% (29) of ED presentations (3.3% of all subjects); of these, 9 (31.0%) were for UOF-related injury. Two subjects in the study died: one as a result of firearm injury and one by suicide after UOF; both were declared dead on scene. Significant injuries related to law enforcement UOF in one city were rare and the only deaths were related to firearm use. A large percentage of those subjected to UOF had diagnoses of substance abuse and/or psychiatric conditions, and most hospital admissions were for problems unrelated to the UOF.

Mass Casualty Incident Involving Pepper Spray Exposure: Impact on the Emergency Department and Management of Casualties

Introduction Exposure to pepper spray in an urban shopping complex resulted in 13 casualties being treated at a tertiary public hospital emergency department (ED). This report describes the ED's organisation in response to the disaster, and clinical management of those affected. Results Thirteen casualties – 11 acute, 2 delayed – presented with symptoms ranging from ocular, respiratory and skin irritation to nausea, vomiting and giddiness. The culprit agent was determined basing on the index patient's history and physical findings. All cases were decontaminated at the ED's on-site Hospital Decontamination Station. Nine adults were monitored overnight in the Emergency Observation Ward under the Toxic Inhalation Protocol and discharged well. The index case was treated symptomatically with improvement, but discharged against medical advice three hours later. No ED re-attendances were recorded. Conclusions The effects of pepper spray exposure are brief and self-limiting, but ED management can pose challenges in a mass casualty situation.

Development and validation of AccuTOF-DART™ as a screening method for analysis of bank security device and pepper spray components

Analysis of bank security devices, containing 1-methylaminoanthraquinone (MAAQ) and o-chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile (CS), and pepper sprays, containing capsaicin, is a lengthy process with no specific screening technique to aid in identifying samples of interest. Direct Analysis in Real Time (DART™) ionization coupled with an Accurate Time of Flight (AccuTOF) mass detector is a fast, ambient ionization source that could significantly reduce time spent on these cases and increase the specificity of the screening process. A new method for screening clothing for bank dye and pepper spray, using AccuTOF-DART™ analysis, has been developed. Detection of MAAQ, CS, and capsaicin was achieved via extraction of each compound onto cardstock paper, which was then sampled in the AccuTOF-DART™. All results were verified using gas chromatography coupled with electron impact mass spectrometry.

Acidosis and Catecholamine Evaluation Following Simulated Law Enforcement “Use of Force” Encounters

Law enforcement authorities are often charged with controlling resisting suspects. These encounters sometimes result in the sudden and unexpected death of the suspect. Drug intoxication, excited delirium syndrome, or excessive uses of force are factors that are often blamed, but sometimes the mechanism of these deaths is not fully understood. It is possible that worsening acidosis or excessive catecholamine release play a part. The objective of this study was to determine the effect on markers of acidosis and catecholamines of various tasks intended to simulate common arrest-related situations. Subjects were assigned to one of five task groups: 1) a 150-meter sprint and wall hurdle (simulated flight from arrest); 2) 45 seconds of striking a heavy bag (simulated physical resistance); 3) a 10-second TASER X26 electronic control device exposure; 4) a fleeing and resistance exercise involving a law enforcement dog (K-9); or 5) an oleoresin capsicum (OC) exposure to the face and neck. Baseline serum pH, lactate, potassium, troponin I, catecholamines, and creatine kinase (CK) were evaluated. Serum catecholamines, pH, lactate, and potassium were sampled immediately after the task and every 2 minutes for 10 minutes posttask. Vital signs were repeated immediately after the task. Serum CK and troponin I were evaluated again at 24 hours posttask. Sixty-six subjects were enrolled; four did not complete their assigned task. One subject lost the intravenous (IV) access after completing the task and did not have data collected, and one subject only received a 5-second TASER device exposure and was excluded from the study, leaving 12 subjects in each task group. The greatest changes in acidosis markers occurred in the sprint and heavy bag groups. Catecholamines increased the most in the heavy bag group and the sprint group and increased to a lesser degree in the TASER, OC, and K-9 groups. Only the sprint group showed an increase in CK at 24 hours. There were no elevations in troponin I in any group, nor any clinically important changes in potassium. The simulations of physical resistance and fleeing on foot led to the greatest changes in markers of acidosis and catecholamines. These changes may be contributing or causal mechanisms in sudden custodial arrest-related deaths (ARDs). This initial work may have implications in guiding applications of force for law enforcement authorities (LEAs) when apprehending resisting subjects.

Development Marketplace

In 1999, as news of protesters being subdued with pepper spray in Seattle at the WTO Ministerial Conference came drifting in, we sat explaining our plans for the World Bank's first Development Marketplace to a senior member of the International Finance Corporation's innovation team.