Older Athletes Research Articles

The Influence of Climate on Flourishing and Motivational Outcomes for U.S. Masters Swimmers.

The climate in which older adults exercise and participate in sport may play a role in promoting a lifetime commitment to exercising. However, little research has examined the relationship of caring (C) and task-involving (TI) climates, motivation, and well-being with respect to older adult athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Masters swimmers' perceptions of the climate, effort, enjoyment, and flourishing as well as explore the mediating effects of effort and enjoyment on the relationship between climate and flourishing. U.S. Masters swimmers (n = 294; Mage = 63.57 years; 84.40% White) with 1-80 years of swimming experience (M = 34.54 years) participating in coach-led programs completed an online survey. The results of latent variable, multiple-mediator analyses via structural equation modeling revealed two important contributions to the literature: (1) when Masters swimmers perceived that they were in C and TI climates, they were more likely to report higher levels of effort and greater enjoyment and flourishing; (2) the Masters swimmers' effort levels directly influenced their flourishing, mediating the relationship between climates and flourishing. This research has important implications for practice and policy, as U.S. Masters Swimming appears to be a fruitful avenue for promoting an enjoyable physical activity that can be experienced throughout a lifetime.

Relationship Between Sensory Organization Testing Scores With Lower Extremity Injuries and Prior Concussion in Professional Soccer Players.

To evaluate for associations between concussion history or lower extremity (LE) injury and computerized sensory organization testing (SOT) performance in professional soccer players. Cross-sectional study. Tertiary care center. Thirty-three, professional, male soccer players on an American club, between the years 2019 and 2021. Player age, history of reported LE injury (gluteal, hamstring, ankle, knee, hip, groin, and sports hernia), history of diagnosed concussion, and the number of prior concussions were documented for each player. Baseline SOT of postural sway was conducted in 6 sensory conditions for all players. Eleven athletes (33%) reported a previous concussion, and 15 (45%) reported a previous LE injury. There were no significant differences in SOT scores between those with and without a previous diagnosis of concussion ( P > 0.05). Those reporting a previous LE injury performed better on condition 3 (eyes open, unstable visual surround) than those who did not ( P = 0.03). Athletes aged 25 years or younger performed worse on condition 3 ( P = 0.01) and had worse, although not statistically significant, median performance on all other balance measures than those older than 25 years. Intraclass correlation coefficient for repeat SOT assessment was 0.58, indicating moderate reliability, without an evident practice effect. Professional soccer players with a previous concussion or history of LE injury did not demonstrate long-term deficits in postural control, as assessed by multiyear computerized SOT baseline testing. The SOT was reliable over time with younger athletes exhibiting greater postural sway than older athletes.

Exercise Volume Versus Intensity and the Progression of Coronary Atherosclerosis in Middle-Aged and Older Athletes: Findings From the MARC-2 Study.

Physical activity and exercise training are associated with a lower risk for coronary events. However, cross-sectional studies in middle-aged and older male athletes revealed increased coronary artery calcification (CAC) and atherosclerotic plaques, which were related to the amount and intensity of lifelong exercise. We examined the longitudinal relationship between exercise training characteristics and coronary atherosclerosis. Middle-aged and older men from the MARC-1 (Measuring Athlete's Risk of Cardiovascular Events 1) study were invited for follow-up in MARC-2 (Measuring Athlete's Risk of Cardiovascular Events 2) study. The prevalence and severity of CAC and plaques were determined by coronary computed tomography angiography. The volume (metabolic equivalent of task [MET] hours/week) and intensity (moderate [3 to 6 MET hours/week]; vigorous [6 to 9 MET hours/week]; and very vigorous [≥9 MET hours/week]) of exercise training were quantified during follow-up. Linear and logistic regression analyses were performed to determine the association between exercise volume/intensity and markers of coronary atherosclerosis. We included 289 (age, 54 [50 to 60] years [median (Q1 to Q3)]) of the original 318 MARC-1 participants with a follow-up of 6.3±0.5 years (mean±SD). Participants exercised for 41 (25 to 57) MET hours/week during follow-up, of which 0% (0 to 19%) was at moderate intensity, 44% (0 to 84%) was at vigorous intensity, and 34% (0 to 80%) was at very vigorous intensity. Prevalence of CAC and the median CAC score increased from 52% to 71% and 1 (0 to 32) to 31 (0 to 132), respectively. Exercise volume during follow-up was not associated with changes in CAC or plaque. Vigorous intensity exercise (per 10% increase) was associated with a lesser increase in CAC score (β, -0.05 [-0.09 to -0.01]; P=0.02), whereas very vigorous intensity exercise was associated with a greater increase in CAC score (β, 0.05 [0.01 to 0.09] per 10%; P=0.01). Very vigorous exercise was also associated with increased odds of dichotomized plaque progression (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.09 [1.01 to 1.18] per 10%; aOR, 2.04 [0.93 to 4.15] for highest versus lowest very vigorous intensity tertiles, respectively), and specifically with increased calcified plaques (aOR, 1.07 [1.00 to 1.15] per 10%; aOR, 2.09 [1.09 to 4.00] for highest versus lowest tertile, respectively). Exercise intensity but not volume was associated with progression of coronary atherosclerosis during 6-year follow-up. It is intriguing that very vigorous intensity exercise was associated with greater CAC and calcified plaque progression, whereas vigorous intensity exercise was associated with less CAC progression.

PS-BPC09-4: THE FACTORS RELATED TO HYPERTENSION IN YOUNG MALE ATHLETES

Objective: There are many studies on hypertension in middle-aged or older athletes, however few studies in young athletes are reported. The purpose of this study is to clarify the factors related to hypertension in young athletes. Design and Methods: The subjects are 256 young male athletes (18.3 ± 1.0 years) of the College of Physical Education. Physiological measurement data and blood samples as fasting status were collected at the time of admission by medical checkup. Muscle mass was evaluated by bioelectrical impedance. Results: Mean height was 172.0 ± 6.4 cm, body weight (BW) 69.3 ± 11.8 kg, body mass index (BMI) 23.4 ± 3.3 kg/m2, systolic blood pressure (SBP) 123.8 ± 12.0 mmHg, and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) 63.4 ± 8.5 mmHg. Using the severity classification of the Japanese Society of Hypertension Guidelines 2019, there were 83 normal blood pressure (BP), 74 high normal BP, 91 elevated BP, 7 grade I hypertension, and grade II hypertension or higher were not present. We investigated correlations between physiological, laboratory parameters and blood pressure (BP). SBP had significant correlations with body surface area (p < 0.001), height (p < 0.01), weight (p < 0.0001), BMI (p < 0.0001), muscle mass (p < 0.0001), Heart Rate (HR) (p < 0.0001), Red blood cell (p < 0.05), and uric acid (p < 0.01). SBP showed no significant correlations with LDL-cholesterol, hemoglobin, fasting blood glucose, AST, ALT, Cr, eGFR. Multiple regression analysis showed that only BW and HR were significantly associated with SBP (y = 89.63 + 0.329 × BW + 0.16 × HR, p < 0.0001). Blood pressure in young athletes is associated with body weight. Strength-trained athletes such as judo are heavier than endurance trained athletes, and tend to have a high percentage of people with high blood pressure. Subsequent years of strength-trained exercise can lead to hypertension. Conclusions: Prehypertension and hypertension in young athletes are more strongly associated with body weight than lipids and blood glucose levels. The type of sport, strength-trained or endurance-trained, may affect the development of hypertension.

Screening of Depression and Mental Health in Elite Youth Sports: Differences in Risk Estimation Between the PHQ-2 and the WHO-5

This study aims to examine whether the risk for depression differs between using a disease- and a health-oriented instrument in elite youth sport and to uncover relationships of risk with concern to age, sex, type of sport, and level of performance. A sample of 549 eleven- to twenty-one-year-old elite athletes were screened using the German versions of the Patient Health Questionnaire-2 (PHQ-2) and the WHO Well-Being Index-5 (WHO-5). For external validity, the state of physical well-being and mood state, as well as recovery measures, were assessed. The proportions of athletes at high risk for mental health problems were 11.3% (PHQ-2) and 12.8% (WHO-5) of the participants. Young athletes (<15 years old) and male athletes showed lower risk values compared with older or female athletes. Moreover, PHQ-2 and WHO-5 values correlated with physical well-being and subjective sleep parameters. Both instruments were practical and diagnostically conclusive. Further studies on the validation of the instruments are recommended.

Return to recreational sports participation following rotator cuff repair in adults over 40 Years of age: outcomes and return to play analysis

Despite the high prevalence of rotator cuff (RTC) tears in older adults, there is limited literature evaluating the return to recreational sport after repair. The purpose of this study was (1) to assess the patient-reported outcomes and return to sport rates following rotator cuff repair in patients aged more than 40 years with minimum 2-year follow-up; (2) to compare baseline, preoperative and postoperative outcomes, and level of play following repair of self-reported athletes with nonathletes; and (3) to compare return to sport rates in overhead athletes compared to nonoverhead athletes. Patients undergoing arthroscopic rotator cuff repair between January 2016 and January 2019 were screened for inclusion. Inclusion criteria included (1) age more than 40 years at the time of surgery, (2) arthroscopic repair of a full thickness RTC tear, and (3) preoperative American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score (ASES) available. Eligible patients were contacted and invited to fill out a custom return to sport and patient-reported outcome survey. Overall, 375 of the 1141 eligible patients completed the survey instrument. There were 210 self-reported athletes (mean age 59.2±9.55 years) and 165 nonathletes (mean age 62.0±8.27 years) (P=.003). Of the athletes, 193 (91.9%) returned to sport. The average age of athletes was 59.4±9.33 years for those who returned to sport and 57.9±12.0 years for those who did not (P=.631). Athletes reported higher ASES scores than nonathletes both preoperatively (49.8±20.3 vs. 44.8±18.9, P=.015) and postoperatively (87.6±16.7 vs. 84.9±17.5, P=.036), but there was no difference in mean ASES improvement between groups (37.7±23.0 vs. 40.3±24.5, P=.307). There was no difference in postoperative Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation scores when comparing self-reported athletes to nonathletes (85.4±17.5 vs. 85.0±18.7, P=.836). After controlling for age, sex, body mass index, and smoking status using a multivariate analysis, there was no difference in mean ASES improvement when comparing athletes to nonathletes. There is a high rate of return to sport activities (> 90%) in older adult recreational athletes following arthroscopic repair of full thickness RTC tears and rates of return to sport did not significantly differ for overhead and nonoverhead athletes. Self-reported athletes were noted to have higher baseline, preoperative, and postoperative ASES scores than nonathletes, but the mean ASES improvement following repair did not significantly differ between groups.

Strength versus endurance trained master athletes: Contrasting neurophysiological adaptations

Neural factors play a critical role in the age-related decline in maximal strength and rate of force development (RFD). However, it is uncertain how the age-related attenuation in neuromuscular function may be mitigated in strength or endurance trained master athletes. In this study we applied evoked spinal motoneuron recordings to examine descending motor drive, i.e., efferent drive from supraspinal and spinal centres during maximal voluntary contraction (MVC; V-wave) and H-reflex excitability measured at 10 % MVC in older (>65 yrs) and younger (<35 yrs) strength athletes (n = 21), endurance athletes (n = 17) and untrained control participants (n = 30). Both strength (b = 0.09 [0.01–0.18], p = 0.038) and endurance training (b = 0.14 [0.04–0.23], p = 0.006) were associated with a high V-wave amplitude. This was likely explained by an elevated H-reflex excitability (b = 0.23 [0.11–0.35], p < 0.001) in endurance trained participants, which failed to be seen in strength trained participants. These contrasting neurophysiological properties were accompanied by different physiological traits; strength training was associated with high maximal strength (b = 107.5 [84.6 to 130.4] kg, p < 0.001) and RFD (b = 3171 [2248 to 4094] N‧s−1, p < 0.001), whereas endurance training was associated with elevated maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max; b = 13.6 [8.0–19.2] ml‧kg−1‧min−1, p < 0.001). This pattern was apparent irrespective of age, although all traits were negatively associated with advanced age (p < 0.05). In conclusion, strength trained individuals demonstrate higher descending motor drive (elevated V-wave responses), compared to age-matched untrained individuals. Endurance trained individuals also showed elevated V-wave responses, uniquely accompanied by enhanced α-motoneuron excitability and/or reduced pre/postsynaptic inhibition (elevated H-reflex responses). Since a high descending motor drive is a key component of strong muscle contractions, strength training should be emphasized to sustain the ability to carry out force-dependent tasks at older age.

Network analysis of associations between anthropometry, physical fitness, and sport-specific performance in young canoe sprint athletes: The role of age and sex.

Anthropometric and physical fitness data can predict sport-specific performance (e.g., canoe sprint race time) in young athletes. Of note, inter-item correlations (i.e., multicollinearity) may exist between tests assessing similar physical qualities. However, multicollinearity among tests may change across age and/or sex due to age-/sex-specific non-linear development of test performances. Therefore, the present study aimed at analyzing inter-item correlations between anthropometric, physical fitness, and sport-specific performance data as a function of age and sex in young canoe sprint athletes. Anthropometric, physical fitness, and sport-specific performance data of 618 male and 297 female young canoe sprint athletes (discipline: male/female kayak, male canoe) were recorded during a national talent identification program between 1992 and 2019. For each discipline, a correlation matrix (i.e., network analysis) was calculated for age category (U13, U14, U15, U16) and sex including anthropometrics (e.g., standing body height, body mass), physical fitness (e.g., cardiorespiratory endurance, muscle power), and sport-specific performance (i.e., 250 and 2,000-m on-water canoe sprint time). Network plots were used to explore the correlation patterns by visual inspection. Further, trimmed means (μtrimmed) of inter-item Pearson's correlations coefficients were calculated for each discipline, age category, and sex. Effects of age and sex were analyzed using one-way ANOVAs. Visual inspection revealed consistent associations among anthropometric measures across age categories, irrespective of sex. Further, associations between physical fitness and sport-specific performance were lower with increasing age, particularly in males. In this sense, statistically significant differences for μtrimmed were observed in male canoeists (p < 0.01, ξ = 0.36) and male kayakers (p < 0.01, ξ = 0.38) with lower μtrimmed in older compared with younger athletes (i.e., ≥U15). For female kayakers, no statistically significant effect of age on μtrimmed was observed (p = 0.34, ξ = 0.14). Our study revealed that inter-item correlation patterns (i.e., multicollinearity) of anthropometric, physical fitness, and sport-specific performance measures were lower in older (U15, U16) versus younger (U13, U14) male canoe sprint athletes but not in females. Thus, age and sex should be considered to identify predictors for sport-specific performance and design effective testing batteries for talent identification programs in canoe sprint athletes.

Prevalence of the Relative Age Effect in Elite Brazilian Volleyball: An Analysis Based on Gender, the Playing Position, and Performance Indicators

Athletes born closer to an arbitrary cut-off date are more likely to reach an elite level in sport, which is supported by a phenomenon called the relative age effect (RAE). It is important to determine whether this phenomenon is present in a sport to minimize this selection bias. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of RAE in elite volleyball athletes, considering the influence of gender, the playing position (Setter, Middle, Libero, Opposite, and Outside Hitter) and the performance level (attack points, aces, and block points). The sample comprised 203 male and 193 female athletes competing in the Superliga A in the 2020/2021 season, which was equivalent to all of the teams of the championship. The data collection was performed during May and June, 2021. Athletes were organized according to gender, the playing position, and performance in the Superliga. For performance variables, athletes were separated based on the median value (90.0), and classified as high- or low-performance. Chi-squared tests were performed to verify differences between birth date distributions in relation to the aforementioned variables. Results indicated overrepresentation of relatively older male athletes (Q1 = 35.96%; Q2 = 27.59%; Q3 = 19.21%; Q4 = 17.24%), especially in Middles, Opposites, and Outside Hitters, regardless of their performance level. Considering females, no differences were found. Our findings suggest that RAE operates differently for men and women in elite Brazilian volleyball. The characteristics of the games played by male and female elite athletes may lead to different talent selection processes, affecting the likelihood of RAE prevalence.

Risk of atrial fibrillation and stroke among older men exposed to prolonged endurance sport practice: a 10-year follow-up. The Birkebeiner Ageing Study and the Tromsø Study

AimsEndurance sport practice is associated with a high prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF), which increases the risk of stroke in the general population. However, stroke risk in endurance athletes with...

Cardiac structure and function in veteran recreational endurance athletes

Abstract Background Even though physical activity is inversely associated with cardiovascular disease, long-term endurance exercise increases the risk of AF in middle-aged and older men, and has been linked to cardiac structural changes mimicking arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy on susceptible individuals. Healthy younger athletes adapt to the increased demands of exercise with symmetric enlargement of the cardiac chambers with preserved functional properties. Data describing cardiac structure and function in older veteran athletes after decades of performing endurance exercise are scarce and add essential information when wanting to discern physiological from pathological remodeling in this group. Purpose To investigate cardiac structural and functional remodeling in relation to long-term endurance exercise in veteran athletes. Methods To cover the entire range of physical activity in the population, the study comprised two independent cohorts; Veteran male athletes who had participated in the annual 54 km Birkebeiner cross-country ski race and men who had participated in a population-based health survey. Individuals with a history of cardiac arrhythmias were excluded. Regular endurance exercise was defined as exercise for ≥30 minutes at least three times weekly with the purpose of increasing physical endurance capacity and self-reported as categories of years of regular endurance exercise. All participants underwent a resting echocardiographic examination. A One-way ANOVA with polynomial contrasts was conducted to explore the effect of years of endurance exercise on cardiac size and function. Results 178 men with a mean age of 70.9±6.5 years were included in the study, 89 veteran athletes, who had practiced regular endurance exercise for an average of 40–50 years, and completed an average of 19 annual Birkebeiner ski races and 89 individuals from the general population. Fifty-seven had never performed regular endurance exercise, 29 1–20 years of exercise, 25 20–40 years of exercise, and 67 &amp;gt;40 years of endurance exercise. Left atrial, left ventricular, right atrial, and right ventricular dimensions increased with cumulative years of exercise (p&amp;lt;0.001), while function remained similar in all cardiac chambers. Conclusion Atrial and ventricular dimensions increased with cumulative years of endurance exercise. Atrial and ventricular function assessed by strain, however, seemed to be unaffected by long-term exposure to exercise. These results suggest recreational endurance athletes preserve normal cardiac function despite athletic remodeling. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Foundation. Main funding source(s): A Ph.D. grant from the DAM foundationA grant from the Raagholt foundation

A Measure of Burnout in Current NCAA Student-Athletes.

IntroductionThe prevalence of athletes who specialize in sports has increased in recent years. Substantial literature on youth sports has linked early sport specialization to negative consequences, such as burnout and injury. However, empirical evidence comparing rates of burnout and specialization in NCAA athletes is limited. The purpose of this study was to survey current NCAA Division I student-athletes to compare levels of burnout to sex, year of NCAA eligibility, and age at the beginning of sport specialization.MethodsA self-reported survey was distributed to student-athletes at two NCAA Division I institutions, which included demographics, sport specialization history, injury history, and the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire. Results from the three measures of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (reduced sense of accomplishment, exhaustion, sport devaluation) were compared to sex, year of NCAA eligibility, age of beginning sport specialization, and injury history.ResultsA total of 267 athletes (95 males and 172 females) completed the survey. Of those, 156 (58.4%) were in their first or second year of NCAA eligibility, and 111 (41.6%) were in their third, fourth, or fifth year. Of the total, 121 (46.4%) reported specializing before the age of 15, and 140 (53.6%) specialized at age 16 or older. Females reported significantly higher levels of exhaustion than males (Difference of means (M) = 0.43, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.20, 0.66], p < 0.01). Athletes in their third, fourth, or fifth year of eligibility reported significantly higher levels of sport devaluation (M = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.48], p < 0.05) than athletes in their first or second year. Athletes who specialized before age 15 did not report significantly higher levels of burnout than athletes who specialized at age 16 or later. In total, 203 athletes (77.2%) reported experiencing any injury. Athletes who reported a history of experiencing any injury demonstrated significantly higher feelings of reduced sense of accomplishment than athletes with no injury history (Difference of means (M) = 0.24, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.03, 0.45], p < 0.05).ConclusionsAthletes were more likely to experience elevated levels of burnout if they reported female sex, older NCAA eligibility, or a past injury history. However, athletes were not more likely to experience increased burnout based on age of beginning specialization. The results demonstrated a need to address burnout in athletes following injury and to be aware that females and older athletes are more prone to burnout.

Shoulder, upper arm and elbow injuries in high school men’s American football

ABSTRACT In order to reduce shoulder, upper arm and elbow injury rates in American football, identifying injury risk factors and any underlying associations is needed. No prior study has done such characterization at the high school level. A descriptive epidemiology study was performed using data from the National Athletic Treatment, Injury, and Outcomes Network Surveillance Program (NATION-SP) from the years 2011/12 to 2013/14 on high school football athletes. Four hundred and sixty total injuries were found in the dataset. Acromioclavicular (AC) sprains had the highest incidence of all injuries (0.060 injuries per 1000 exposures). Fractures lead to the greatest time lost (42.24 days). Most injuries occurred in older athletes (juniors and seniors, 30% and 32%, respectively), were related to tackling (31%), and in running back and linebacker positions (15% each). Orthopaedic surgeons and other sports medicine specialists can use these findings to educate players, coaches and families about injury risks and for improving injury prevention guidelines.

Influences on glycocalyx shedding during the Yukon Arctic Ultra: the longest and the coldest ultramarathon.

The endothelial glycocalyx maintains vascular structure and may be subject to shedding during inflammation and also during high-intensive exercise. There are no studies on shedding during ultra-endurance exercise. The "Yukon Arctic Ultra" (YAU) is one of the longest and coldest ultramarathons and its impact on glycocalyx shedding was investigated. Thirteen adults (38.92 ± 8.67 yr, 6 females) of YAU editions 2015-2019 completed 657.03 ± 71.65 km at a moving velocity of 4.17 ± 0.62 km/h. Mean daily temperatures ranged from -12.6°C to -30.5°C. Glycocalyx elements heparan sulfate, hyaluronan, and syndecan CD-138 were quantified from serum at start, 277 km, 383 km, and 690 km. Cortisol, C-reactive protein, creatine kinase, and N-terminal-prohormone of brain natriuretic peptide were also quantified. Seven YAU volunteers (36.14 ± 11.04 yr, 5 females) served as control. There were no time-changes among the control. Among finishers, there was a significant increase for hyaluronan and a significant decrease for syndecan CD-138. Values were greater among female finishers for heparan sulfate at start, 383 km, and 690 km, and among male finishers for hyaluronan at 277 km. Values for syndecan CD-138 were greater among older finishers at all timepoints. There were weak significant correlations (R2 < 0.215) between hyaluronan and distance, creatine kinase, and NT-Pro BNP, respectively. Shedding of glycocalyx elements is shown among participants of the YAU. Greater shedding of heparan sulfate among female, greater increases of hyaluronan among male, and greater shedding of syndecan CD-138 among older athletes indicate complex glycocalyx shedding during ultra-endurance exercise.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to investigate changes in glycocalyx elements in an endurance footrace and first study to investigate exercise-induced shedding in both sexes. This study comprised of an athlete group who finished the ultra-long distance of up to 690 km during the Yukon Arctic Ultra as well as a control group. Results indicate relevant and different shedding of glycocalyx elements heparan sulfate, hyaluronan, and syndecan CD-138. Sex, age, BMI, and covered distance appear to have an influence on the shedding. Other serum parameters indicative of stress appear to be associated with shedding.

Associations of lifetime concussion history and repetitive head impact exposure with resting-state functional connectivity in former collegiate American football players: An NCAA 15-year follow-up study.

The objective of this study was to examine associations of lifetime concussion history (CHx) and an advanced metric of lifetime repetitive head impact exposure with resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) across the whole-brain and among large-scale functional networks (Default Mode; Dorsal Attention; and Frontoparietal Control) in former collegiate football players. Individuals who completed at least one year of varsity collegiate football were eligible to participate in this observational cohort study (n = 48; aged 36-41 years; 79.2% white/Caucasian; 12.5±4.4 years of football played; all men). Individuals were excluded if they reported history/suspicion of psychotic disorder with active symptoms, contraindications to participation in study procedures (e.g., MRI safety concern), or inability to travel. Each participant provided concussion and football playing histories. Self-reported concussion history was analyzed in two different ways based on prior research: dichotomous "High" (≥3 concussions; n = 28) versus "Low" (<3 concussions; n = 20); and four ordinal categories (0-1 concussion [n = 19]; 2-4 concussions [n = 8]; 5-7 concussions [n = 9]; and ≥8 concussions [n = 12]). The Head Impact Exposure Estimate (HIEE) was calculated from football playing history captured via structured interview. Resting-state fMRI and T1-weighted MRI were acquired and preprocessed using established pipelines. Next, rsFC was calculated using the Seitzman et al., (2020) 300-ROI functional atlas. Whole-brain, within-network, and between-network rsFC were calculated using all ROIs and network-specific ROIs, respectively. Effects of CHx and HIEE on rsFC values were examined using separate multivariable linear regression models, with a-priori α set to 0.05. We observed no statistically significant associations between rsFC outcomes and either CHx or HIEE (ps ≥ .12). Neither CHx nor HIEE were associated with neural signatures that have been observed in studies of typical and pathological aging. While CHx and repetitive head impacts have been associated with changes in brain health in older former athletes, our preliminary results suggest that associations with rsFC may not be present in early midlife former football players.

The Impact of Training on the Loss of Cardiorespiratory Fitness in Aging Masters Endurance Athletes.

Elite masters endurance athletes are considered models of optimal healthy aging due to the maintenance of high cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) until old age. Whereas a drop in VO2max in masters athletes has been broadly investigated, the modifying impact of training still remains a matter of debate. Longitudinal observations in masters endurance athletes demonstrated VO2max declines between −5% and −46% per decade that were closely related to changes in training volume. Here, using regression analyses, we show that 54% and 39% of the variance in observed VO2max decline in male and female athletes, respectively is explained by changes in training volume. An almost linear VO2max decrease was observed in studies on young and older athletes, as well as non-athletes, starting a few days after training cessation, with a decline of as much as −20% after 12 weeks. Besides a decline in stroke volume and cardiac output, training cessation was accompanied by considerable reductions in citrate synthase and succinate dehydrogenase activity (reduction in mitochondrial content and oxidative capacity). This reduction could largely be rescued within similar time periods of training (re)uptake. It is evident that training reduction or cessation leads to a considerably accelerated VO2max drop, as compared to the gradual aging-related VO2max decline, which can rapidly nullify many of the benefits of preceding long-term training efforts.

Lifelong Strength Versus Endurance Training: Differential Adaptations In Efferent Neural Drive And Spinal α-motoneuron Excitability

PURPOSE: Neural factors play a critical role in the age-related decline in maximal strength and rate of force development (RFD). However, it is uncertain how the neural attenuation may be mitigated by strength or endurance training, respectively. METHODS: In this study we applied evoked spinal motoneuron recordings to examine efferent neural drive (V/Msup during maximal voluntary contraction; MVC) and α-motoneuron excitability (Hmax/Mmax at 10% MVC) in a total of 69 older (>65 yrs) and younger (<35 yrs) strength athletes (n = 21), endurance athletes (n = 17) and control subjects (n = 31). RESULTS: Leg press strength (one repetition maximum: 1RM) but not maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max), were positively associated with V/Msup (r = 0.60, p < 0.001). Leg press 1RM and RFD were higher (all p < 0.05) in older strength athletes (1RM: 164 ± 18 kg; RFD (0-200 ms); 4262 ± 1022 N·s-1) than endurance athletes (1RM: 132 ± 25 kg; RFD: 3080 ± 669 N·s-1) and older controls (1RM: 109 ± 15 kg; RFD: 2202 ± 915 N·s-1), but lower compared to training-matched young groups (p < 0.05). V̇O2max was positively associated with Hmax/Mmax (r = 0.47, p < 0.001) while no correlation was observed for 1RM. V̇O2max was higher (all p < 0.05) in older endurance athletes (47.6 ± 7.6 ml·kg-1·min-1) than in older strength athletes (30.9 ± 6.0 ml·kg-1·min-1) and older controls (34.2 ± 4.4 ml·kg-1·min-1), but lower than all young groups (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Across the life span the plasticity in skeletal muscle strength and aerobic capacity, respectively, seems to be associated with differential neural factors. Specifically, chronic strength training seems to result in a higher efferent neural drive during maximal muscle contractions (elevated V-wave responses), largely dependent on corticospinal factors, whereas chronic endurance training appears to be related to a high α-motoneuron excitability, at least during low-level muscle contractions. Since high efferent neural drive is a key component for strong muscle contractions with age, strength training should be emphasized for the ability to carry out force-dependent tasks at older age.

Methodological Proposal for Strength and Power Training in Older Athletes: A Narrative Review.

Within the adult population, it is not uncommon to meet older athletes who challenge the negative stereotypes associated with aging. Although their physical performance is superior to their sedentary counterparts, they are not immune to impaired neuromuscular function, leading to a decreased physical capacity and an increased risk of injuries. Despite the abundant information about the benefits of strength/power training in advanced ages, there are no methodological proposals that guide physical activity professionals to program this type of training. This study aimed to review the factors related to the decrease in sports performance within older athletes and the benefits of a strength/power program in order to provide a methodological proposal to organize training in this population. This is a review article. First, databases from PubMed, Science Direct, and SPORTSDiscus and search engines, namely Google Scholar and Scielo, were reviewed, using standard keywords such as strength and power training, evaluation of physical performance, neuromuscular function, and risk of injury in the elderly athlete. All related articles published during the period 1963 to 2020 were considered. A total of 1837 documents were found. By removing 1715 unrelated documents, 122 articles were included in the study after revision control. Strength/power training is key to alleviating the loss of performance in older athletes and the benefits in neuromuscular function, which helps reduce the rate of serious injuries, maintaining sports practice for a longer period of time. In order to design an appropriate program, a prior evaluation of the individual's physical-technical level must be carried out, respecting the biologicalpedagogical principles and safety regulations. The methodological proposal delivered in this review can serve as a technical guide for physical activity professionals, which will be able to structure the strength/power training and thus preserve the sports practice in older athletes for a longer time.

Right Heart Structure and Function in Lifelong Recreational Endurance Athletes with and without Paroxysmal Atrial Fibrillation

Healthy young athletes adapt to the increased demands of endurance exercise with symmetric cardiac remodeling. Male veteran endurance athletes have an increased risk for atrial fibrillation (AF), and some athletes seem susceptible to changes mimicking arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy. Intense exercise puts a disproportionate hemodynamic load on the right-sided heart chambers. Despite this, data describing right heart structure and function in older veteran athletes are scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate structural and functional characteristics of the right heart in veteran athletes with and without AF to contribute to the understanding of exercise-induced cardiac remodeling in this group. Three hundred two male participants, of whom 151 were veteran skiers (62 with paroxysmal AF) and 151 were control subjects from the general population (62 with paroxysmal AF), underwent echocardiographic examinations in sinus rhythm to evaluate right atrial (RA) and right ventricular (RV) structure and function. While 87 of the participants had never exercised regularly, 50, 43, and 122 men had practiced regular endurance exercise for 1 to 20, 20 to 40, and >40years, respectively. RA volume and RV size increased with cumulative years of exercise (P<.001), with a disproportionate increase in RV size compared with left ventricular (LV) size, regardless of AF status (P<.001). RA and RV function assessed by strain remained similar despite lifelong exposure to endurance exercise. AF was associated with reduced RA strain irrespective of exposure to exercise (P<.001). RA and RV sizes and RV/LV ratio showed a dose-response relationship with cumulative years of endurance exercise, whereas RA and RV function did not, indicating that increasing RV/LV ratio may represent a physiologic adaptation to prolonged endurance exercise. AF was associated with reduced RA function, regardless of exposure to exercise, suggesting that RA functional parameters are more closely linked to AF than RA size in veteran athletes.

Trained athletes and cognitive function: a systematic review and meta-analysis

ABSTRACT As trends in physical inactivity continue to increase throughout the lifespan, one prominent area of interest is the cumulative benefits of participating in physical activity. Recent literature has demonstrated the cognitive and brain benefits associated with one such population, elite athletes. However, it is unclear which aspects of the athlete experience drive this athlete–cognition relationship, which is the objective of the current study. In this study, we examine, in a quantitative meta-analysis (k = 41), the relationship between athlete experiences and laboratory-based measures of cognitive function in the following domains: attentional allocation, inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. Athlete groups outperform control groups on a battery of cognitive tasks, including attentional allocation (g = 1.18) and cognitive flexibility (g = 0.31). Moreover, athlete type and experience are important factors to consider when evaluating this relationship. Moderator analyses revealed that athletes trained in aerobic (g = 0.93) or HIIT team-based sports (g = 0.65), as well as child (g = 0.26), elite (g = 0.94) (semi-professional, professional, national and international) or older adult athletes (g = 0.91) were responsible for driving this effect. At a time when physical inactivity levels are increasing, these results have important societal considerations. Participating in sport-related physical activity may be a beneficial influence on cognitive development throughout the lifespan.