Oil Spill Preparedness Research Articles

Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems [TROPICS]: A 32-year Review of Response and Recovery

ABSTRACT In 1984, the Tropical Oil Pollution Investigations in Coastal Systems (TROPICS) experiment began in Bahia Almirante on the Caribbean coast of Panama. This study sought to compare the impacts of a severe, but realistic spill of untreated crude oil versus chemically treated (dispersed) crude oil on tropical marine reef, sea-grass, and mangrove ecosystems. The aim of the study was to identify and evaluate the environmental trade-offs of dispersant use in tropical marine and subtidal systems. As a result of continuing research at the site, the study became one of the most comprehensive field experiments examining the long-term impacts of oil and dispersed oil exposures in nearshore tropical communities. Consequently, TROPICS has been the foundational and seminal field study which served as the historical antecedent for Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA), as well as the basis for follow-on Spill Impact Mitigation Analysis (SIMA) and Comparative Risk Analysis (CRA) for oil spill planning, preparation, and response. From the initial experiment in 1984, through three decades of study and data collection visits, the coral reef, seagrass, and mangrove communities have exhibited significantly different damage and recovery regimes, depending on whether the sites were exposed to non-treated crude oil or dispersed crude oil. While this study does not definitively determine whether or not dispersants should be applied in tropical nearshore environments, it is illustrative of the environmental and ecosystem trade-offs between surface oil impacts to the shoreline, compared to water column exposure from chemically dispersed oil. This paper provides an overview of the results and observations reported in numerous previous TROPICS publications, as a progression of damage and recovery over time. With this perspective, planners and responders can use this study to predict what damages/recoveries may be expected from an oil spill incident in this environment. The results of the TROPICS experiment are examined within the context of this recent parallel research from the perspective of ongoing implications for oil spill preparedness and response.

Combating of oil spills by funding of oil spill preparedness vs funding for compensation after the spill events

• The total volume of oil spilled and the number of spills has declined significantly over the past forty years. However, oil spills are no longer considered as an unavoidable. The ship source oil pollution still remains a potentially important risk to the local economies and the marine environment which can cause major economic loss and severe damages to the coastal and marine environment. The international regulatory framework to deal with liability and compensation for ship source oil pollution has evolved over the past three decades. The available international legal regime for oil pollution liability and compensation is playing a great role in governing the discharge of oil into the sea by ensuring liability for polluters and compensation for victims of pollution. Despite the fact that the total cost of the oil spill cannot be compensated through the available international civil liability regime and entire damages caused to the marine environment cannot be compensated or recovered. This paper examined the application and limitations of available liability and compensation mechanisms for the protection of marine pollution and compares the benefit of the establishment of a funding mechanism for the strengthening of the level of oil spill preparedness and the civil liability regime for the protection of the coastal and marine environment. In addition, this paper reviews the funding mechanism adopted by the countries to strengthen a level of oil spill preparedness taken into account the polluter pays principle without putting the extra burden to general taxpayers. The establishment of a system for the funding of oil spill preparedness using the polluter pay principle has immensely helped to improve the oil spill response capabilities and protection of the marine environment of coastal states which adopted a unique funding mechanism by applying the polluter pay principle. This paper recommends among other things, review the available compensation and liability regime for the protection of the marine environment and recommend to adopt and apply a uniform funding mechanism for the strengthening of the level of oil spill preparedness taken into account the polluter pay principle for the protection of the marine environment and improve the status quo. • Liability, compensation, Preparedness, Polluters pay principle

Geographic Response Plans: Preparing for Inland Oil Spills in California Waterways

ABSTRACT #1141189 Emergency regulations governing the development of oil spill contingency plans in California, along with financial responsibility for inland facilities, pipelines, refineries and railroads, became effective in 2015, with final regulations being adopted in January of 2019. With the California Department of Fish and Wildlife's (CDFW's) Office of Spill Prevention and Response's (OSPR's) authority for oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response being extended to inland waters of the State, the need to develop Geographic Response Plans (GRPs) for priority watersheds with higher risk of an oil spill became a top priority. Given the successful history with developing, implementing, and maintaining the California marine Area Contingency Plans (ACPs), OSPR has implemented a similarly effective GRP program. GRPs are driven primarily by access to sites along river systems and lakes where response activities are feasible. The process of developing GRPs for the State has consisted of: 1) developing a consistent document framework based on recently developed GRPs including the Region 10 Regional Response Team (RRT) and Northwest Area Committee (NWAC) GRPs in the Pacific Northwest, the Feather River GRP developed by Union Pacific Railroad in California, as well as previously developed GRPs by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Region 9 (California, Nevada, Arizona); 2) implementing a Statewide GRP Steering Committee (SGSC) consisting of State, federal and local agencies, industry, oil spill response organizations (OSROs), an environmental Non-Governmental Organization (NGO), and a tribal representative; and 3) developing partnerships with industry representatives, and federal, State and local agencies, including first responders [Local Emergency Planning Committees (LEPCs) and others] to ensure critical local expertise and information is incorporated in each, individual GRP. With the emerging trend of oil by rail transportation; historical spill threats from pipelines, fixed facilities, and truck transportation; and the promulgation of emergency regulations extending OSPR's oil spill preparedness activities to inland waters, the development of GRPs for at-risk watersheds became critical.

Founding Principles for Cooperation & Success for Oil Spill Preparedness & Response

Abstract Thirty years ago, a diplomatic conference held in Paris recognised the importance of cooperation in helping countries better prepare for and respond to oil pollution incidents. The Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation Convention (OPRC 90) was thus conceived and shortly afterwards, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and IPIECA jointly developed a program to help nations implement the provisions of the Convention with practical assistance and technical cooperation as the central offering. This programme, which was launched in Cape Town and became known as the Global Initiative (GI), is still growing, developing and evolving some 24 year later. A key fundamental concept is the principle of regionality. Often countries in a specific region share similar geographical features and cultures, and face similar risks associated with the extraction and transportation of oil, which transcend the needs of national sovereignty and independence. The GI program focuses on these shared values of marine environmental protection and draws strength, not only from the collective will of national governments to protect the marine environment, but also on the needs of industry to work collaboratively with regulators and authorities to achieve a common goal for society. A regional approach also “raises the bar” in terms of national preparedness, ensuring a regional level playing field. It also underscores the need for regional collaboration noting that a catastrophic oil spill may exceed the capacity for any single country to respond. To that end, the GI program has further developed to be in a position to accommodate the growing range of needs of countries implementing OPRC 90, from offering support on core concepts (on topics such as implementing legislation, designating authority in charge etc.), to facilitating training on more technical topics (e.g. sensitivity mapping and how to implement a shoreline clean-up program). For a quarter of a century, the GI model has progressed into a series of regional programs which now encompass a third of all maritime coastal states. In this session we will hear more of these regional manifestations of GI, their challenges and opportunities which will provide us with a truly global perspective on what GI has achieved and has still to achieve in a world where the risks of oil spills continue to evolve. This paper will explore the concept of regionality and other key elements that continue to make the program relevant and adaptable to the oil spill risks that society faces today.

Species sensitivity assessment of five Atlantic scleractinian coral species to 1-methylnaphthalene

Coral reefs are keystone coastal ecosystems that are at risk of exposure to petroleum from a range of sources, and are one of the highest valued natural resources for protection in Net Environmental Benefit Analysis (NEBA) in oil spill response. Previous research evaluating dissolved hydrocarbon impacts to corals reflected no clear characterization of sensitivity, representing an important knowledge gap in oil spill preparedness related to the potential impact of oil spills to the coral animal and its photosymbiont zooxanthellae. This research addresses this gap, using a standardized toxicity protocol to evaluate effects of a dissolved reference hydrocarbon on scleractinian corals. The relative sensitivity of five Atlantic scleractinian coral species to hydrocarbon exposure was assessed with 48-h assays using the reference polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon 1-methylnaphthalene, based on physical coral condition, mortality, and photosynthetic efficiency. The threatened staghorn coral Acropora cervicornis was found to be the most sensitive to 1-methylnaphthalene exposure. Overall, the acute and subacute endpoints indicated that the tested coral species were comparatively more resilient to hydrocarbon exposure than other marine species. These results provide a framework for the prediction of oil spill impacts and impact thresholds on the coral animal and related habitats, essential for informing oil spill response in coastal tropical environments.

Russia in the Arctic Chair: Adapting the Arctic Governance System to Conditions Prevailing in the 2020s

Abstract At the Arctic Council’s Ministerial Meeting in Reykjavik on 20 May 2021, Russia assumed the chairmanship of the council for the second time since its establishment in 1996. Though some Russian analysts and practitioners were skeptical about the usefulness of such a mechanism during the 1980s and 1990s, Russia has become an active contributor to the progress of the Arctic Council (AC). Russia’s first term as chair during 2004–2006 led to the creation of the Arctic Contaminants Action Program as an Arctic Council Working Group. Since then, Russia has served as co-lead of the Task Forces developing the terms of the 2011 agreement on search and rescue, the 2013 agreement on marine oil spill preparedness and response, and the 2017 agreement on enhancing international scientific cooperation. Russia also has participated actively in the creation of related bodies including the Arctic Coast Guard Forum and the Arctic Economic Council whose chairmanships rotate together with the chairmanship of the AC. Now, far-reaching changes in the broader setting are posing growing challenges to the effectiveness of these institutional arrangements. The impacts of climate change in the high latitudes have increased dramatically; the pace of the extraction and shipment of Arctic natural resources has accelerated sharply; great-power politics have returned to the Arctic foregrounding concerns regarding military security. Together, these developments make it clear that a policy of business as usual will not suffice to ensure that the AC remains an important high-level forum for addressing Arctic issues in a global context. The programme Russia has developed for its 2021–2023 chairmanship of the council is ambitious; it proposes a sizeable suite of constructive activities. In this article, however, we go a step further to explore opportunities to adapt the Arctic governance system to the conditions prevailing in the 2020s. We focus on options relating to (i) the AC’s constitutive arrangements, (ii) links between the council and related governance mechanisms, (iii) the role of science diplomacy, and (iv) the treatment of issues involving military security. We conclude with a discussion of the prospect of organising a heads of state/government meeting during the Russian chairmanship as a means of setting the Arctic governance system on a constructive path for the 2020s.

Implementing Bayesian networks for ISO 31000:2018-based maritime oil spill risk management: State-of-art, implementation benefits and challenges, and future research directions

The risk of a large-scale oil spill remains significant in marine environments as international maritime transport continues to grow. The environmental as well as the socio-economic impacts of a large-scale oil spill could be substantial. Oil spill models and modeling tools for Pollution Preparedness and Response (PPR) can support effective risk management. However, there is a lack of integrated approaches that consider oil spill risks comprehensively, learn from all information sources, and treat the system uncertainties in an explicit manner. Recently, the use of the international ISO 31000:2018 risk management framework has been suggested as a suitable basis for supporting oil spill PPR risk management. Bayesian networks (BNs) are graphical models that express uncertainty in a probabilistic form and can thus support decision-making processes when risks are complex and data are scarce. While BNs have increasingly been used for oil spill risk assessment (OSRA) for PPR, no link between the BNs literature and the ISO 31000:2018 framework has previously been made. This study explores how Bayesian risk models can be aligned with the ISO 31000:2018 framework by offering a flexible approach to integrate various sources of probabilistic knowledge. In order to gain insight in the current utilization of BNs for oil spill risk assessment and management (OSRA-BNs) for maritime oil spill preparedness and response, a literature review was performed. The review focused on articles presenting BN models that analyze the occurrence of oil spills, consequence mitigation in terms of offshore and shoreline oil spill response, and impacts of spills on the variables of interest. Based on the results, the study discusses the benefits of applying BNs to the ISO 31000:2018 framework as well as the challenges and further research needs.

Arctic Ocean Management and Indigenous Peoples: Recent Legal Developments

This article examines recent legal developments in the management of human activities in Arctic marine areas and considers the extent to which these developments acknowledge or recognize the rights, roles and interests of Arctic Indigenous peoples. These developments include the negotiation of three treaties under the auspices of the Arctic Council: the Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, (Arctic SAR Agreement), the Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response in the Arctic (Arctic MOSPA), and the Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation (Arctic Science Agreement), the adoption of the Polar Code by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), and, most recently, the signature of the Agreement to Prevent Unregulated High Seas Fisheries in the Central Arctic Ocean (the CAOF Agreement). It also examines more recent practice under the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears (ACPB).

A Study on Preparedness and Response of Oil Spill

This study determines the success of an action prepared at an oil terminal in Kemaman, Terengganu. The oil spill is defined as a liquid hydrocarbon release into a marine environment and mostly is caused by human activity which produces water pollution. The oil spill could occur due to the production of crude oil from shipbuilding, drilling rigs and spill from refined petroleum products. The oil spill could affect severe sea ecosystems, fish and rocks, causing environmental damage as well as affected human health and millions of dollars were spent on recovery and consume longer period to recover completely. In addition, the success rate of the oil spill is important which influences by results of the preparation and the response activity. This study analyzes three elements namely assets, human error, and response as the major contribution for the oil spill preparedness towards the oil spill response. 50 respondents from related government agencies such as marine department and environment department and team response members have participated in this research. The results show a strong positive relationship between preparedness and response at 0.857.

An integrated offshore oil spill response decision making approach by human factor analysis and fuzzy preference evaluation

Human factors/errors (such as inappropriate actions by operators and unsafe supervision by organizations) are a primary cause of oil spill incidents. To investigate the influences of active operational failures and unsafe latent factors in offshore oil spill accidents, an integrated human factor analysis and decision support process has been developed. The system is comprised of a Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) framework to qualitatively evaluate the influence of various factors and errors associated with the multiple operational stages considered for oil spill preparedness and response (e.g., oil spill occurrence, spill monitoring, decision making/contingency planning, and spill response); coupled with quantitative data analysis by Fuzzy Set Theory and the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (Fuzzy-TOPSIS) to enhance decision making during response operations. The efficiency of the integrated human factor analysis and decision support system is tested with data from a case study to generate a comprehensive priority rank, a robust sensitivity analysis, and other theoretical/practical insights. The proposed approach improves our knowledge on the significance of human factors/errors on oil spill accidents and response operations; and provides an improved support tool for decision making.

Measuring oil residence time with GPS-drifters, satellites, and Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS).

As oil production worldwide continues to increase, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico, marine oil spill preparedness relies on deeper understanding of surface oil spill transport science. This paper describes experiments carried out on a chronic release of crude oil and aims to understand the residence time of oil slicks using a combination of remote sensing platforms and GPS tracked drifters. From April 2017 to August 2018, we performed multiple synchronized deployments of drogued and un-drogued drifters to monitor the life time (residence time) of the surface oil slicks originated from the MC20 spill site, located close to the Mississippi Delta. The hydrodynamic design of the two types of drifters allowed us to compare their performance differences. We found the un-drogued drifter to be more appropriate to measure the speed of oil transport. Drifter deployments under various wind conditions show that stronger winds lead to reduce the length of the slick, presumably because of an increase in the evaporation rate and entrainment of oil in the water produced by wave action. We have calculated the residence time of oil slicks at MC20 site to be between 4 and 28 h, with average wind amplitude between 3.8 and 8.8 m/s. These results demonstrate an inverse linear relationship between wind strength and residence time of the oil, and the average residence time of the oil from MC20 is 14.9 h.

Development and application of an amylopectin-graft-poly(methyl acrylate) solidifier for rapid and efficient containment and recovery of heavy oil spills in aqueous environments

Effective oil spill preparedness and response are crucial to ensure environmental protection and promote the responsible development of the petroleum industry. Hence, interest in developing new approaches and/or improving existing oil spill response measures has increased greatly in the past decade. Solidifiers are an attractive and underutilized option to mitigate the effects of oil spills, as they interact with oil to contain the spill, prevent it from spreading, and facilitate its removal from the environment. In this work, we have synthesized an inexpensive and easy-to-make natural-based sorbent, a subclass of solidifiers. Our amylopectin-graft-poly(methyl acrylate) (AP-g-PMA) sorbent is highly oleophilic and hydrophobic, and selectively solidifies diluted bitumen and conventional crude oil from biphasic mixtures of oil and water. The complete solidification of conventional crude oil and diluted bitumen by the AP-g-PMA sorbent occurs within 8 and 32 min, respectively, and even a low solidifier-to-oil ratio of 4% w/w is sufficient to enable complete recovery of diluted bitumen. This innovative natural-based polymeric sorbent may be applied as a key component of oil spill response procedures, especially for heavy oils. The AP-g-PMA sorbent combines the biodegradability and non-toxicity of the amylopectin with the hydrophobicity and oleophilicity of the synthetic polymer poly(methyl acrylate).

Map of shoreline environment for oil spill response in Can Gio district

Ho Chi Minh City has the largest system of river ports and sea ports in Vietnam, approximately 41 operating ports with the largest cargo volume of import and export goods. Due to the high density of river and sea traffic, there are many potential risks of oil spills due to collisions and accidents of water transport vehicles. Therefore, mapping shoreline environment is essential for the oil spill preparedness and response to identify highly contaminated areas and sensitive areas that need to be prioritized for timely prevention and protection. The objective of the study is to establish map of shoreline environment for the oil spill preparedness and response in Can Gio District based on the ESI guideline of NOAA (2002). The map consisted of three components: (1) shoreline classifications, (2) biological resources, and (3) human resources. The research result shows that Can Gio District is a highly sensitive area with oil spills due to the appearance of the mangrove ecosystem and this area grows salt water and brackish water aquaculture such as clam, oyster, cage fish, lipopenaeus (white shrimp), and tourist attractions like beaches, ecotourism destinations. In general, Can Gio is identified as a high sensitive region that needs timely measures to mitigate impacts of oil spill on natural environment and local socio-economy.

Global production networks and strategic coupling in value chains entering peripheral regions

In economic geography, scholars have discussed how endogenous regional sources of skills, networks and capital have led to new regional industrial growth. However, extra-regional dimensions and global production networks has mostly been left behind in the literature. In this paper, I develop a conceptual framework through the eanalysis of how exogenous sources are coupled to regional actors through the lenses of Global Production Networks and Global Value Chains in offshore oil. The author find that strategies in GPN lead firm vary between local integrative strategies and more complex global strategies. I demonstrate that GPN strategies have different impacts on local development processes, whereby strategies in the early phases of the value chain (i.e. drilling and seismic surveys) were path dependent and led to few local linkages due to lack of competence and infrastructure locally. The GPN strategies in late stages of the value chain (operations) were more context sensitive, as GPNs sought new solutions in procurement and oil spill preparedness, which together increased the local linkages. The implications for policy are to develop cautious regional development policies that are sensitive to specific GPN value stages and lead firms within GPNs.

End-user and Stakeholder Views on Selected Risk Assessment Tools for Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response, Including Future Research and Development Needs

End-user and Stakeholder Views on Selected Risk Assessment Tools for Marine Oil Spill Preparedness and Response, Including Future Research and Development Needs

Comparative risk assessment of spill response options for a deepwater oil well blowout: Part III. Stakeholder engagement

This paper describes oil spill stakeholder engagement in a recent comparative risk assessment (CRA) project that examined the tradeoffs associated with a hypothetical offshore well blowout in the Gulf of Mexico, with a specific focus on subsea dispersant injection (SSDI) at the wellhead. SSDI is a new technology deployed during the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill response. Oil spill stakeholders include decision makers, who will consider whether to integrate SSDI into future tradeoff decisions. This CRA considered the tradeoffs associated with three sets of response strategies: (1) no intervention; (2) mechanical recovery, in-situ burning, and surface dispersants; and, (3) SSDI in addition to responses in (2). For context, the paper begins with a historical review of U.S. policy and engagement with oil spill stakeholders regarding dispersants. Stakeholder activities throughout the project involved decision-maker representatives and their advisors to inform the approach and consider CRA utility in future oil spill preparedness.

Oil Spill Incidents and Their Impacts to Fisheries and Tourism Activities in Kepulauan Seribu

Kepulauan Seribu is a group of islands located in the north of Jakarta. which consist of several sensitive areas such as National Marine Park. settlement. coral reefs. fisheries. and tourism areas. The activities of oil & gas industries and shipping lanes in Kepulauan Seribu could potentially lead to oil spill pollution to waters and coast of Kepulauan Seribu which causing damage to sensitive areas. Past incidents of oil spills in Kepulauan Seribu has causing damages to fisheries. corals reef. and tourism activities. Therefore. appropriate oil spill preparedness and response are required since they are they are regulated by government and are important measures to minimize the negative impacts of an oil spill.

Limitations of the Swedish network coordination of oil spill preparedness

The management of extreme crisis situations in Sweden has shown delays in decisive actions at higher levels during emergencies, such as oil spills. This has been blamed on unclear responsibilities that undermine the decision‐making process. Confusing, conflicting, or delayed orders impede response effectiveness. This article uses network analysis and survey responses to examine the Swedish oil spill crisis management network and show the Swedish Coast Guard, Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency and Oil Spill Advisory Service as central organizations. However, the roles of these organizations need to be clarified and communicated better to other organizations. In order to improve coordination of Swedish oil spill preparedness, it is suggested to formalize and strengthen the roles of these central organizations. Weak connections between municipalities in different counties were also observed. This weakness could be overcome by more frequent exercises across counties to improve familiarity.

COMPARING SWEDISH OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS TO REGIONAL COUNTRIES USING THE RETOS™ EVALUATION TOOL

ABSTRACT 2017-253 Few standardised frameworks are designed to assess the full range of oil spill preparedness activities, from plan development, implementation, equipment, training, exercises, and response sustainability. This paper analyses the international practice of oil spill preparedness measures and compares them to Swedish practice. Friedman’s test and Dunn’s post-test have been used to compare the RETOS™ evaluation scores of Finland, Russia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, Denmark, and Norway to Sweden. The United States is examined as an external reference. The RETOS™ programme is an Excel tool developed for the International Oil Spill Conference 2008. It is a guide for industry and governments to assess their level of oil spill response, planning, and preparedness management in relation to established criteria, and is intended for international best management practices. Swedish oil spill preparedness is shown to be comparable to the Baltic Sea regional practice. The Swedish RETOS™ evaluation score is 69%, compared to the average 73.1% of the examined countries. A statistical difference exists between Sweden and both Norway and the United States. Swedish oil spill preparedness is comparable to the Baltic Sea Region countries despite: not having a National Contingency Plan, not using the Tiered Preparedness and Response concept, nor having adopted an Incident Management System. This suggests that these concepts are not essential for a functioning preparedness regime, although Sweden instead has a system serving the same function. However, it also questions what effect implementing these concepts would have on Swedish preparedness.

OIL SPILL PREPAREDNESS ASSURANCE IN A POST MACONDO WORLD

ABSTRACT The increased public awareness of oil spills and their impacts following the 2010 Macondo oil spill incident along with the changing global landscape of regulatory requirements and stakeholder expectations present numerous challenges to operators. Many of these challenges, as well as incorporation of lessons learned from Macondo, can be addressed through robust preparedness. Oil spill preparedness programs generally include a combination of response plans, incident management and response teams, response equipment and personnel (resources), training and exercises. However, what constitutes a robust preparedness program is often open to interpretation. While acknowledging the availability of a few preparedness assessment/audit tools, such as RETOS, it was felt a fit for purpose assurance program that facilitated open communication, free exchange of ideas and sharing of best practices would result in a greater overall improvement to the company’s global level of preparedness. Consequently, ConocoPhillips retained Oil Spill Response Ltd. (OSRL) to assist in developing a process and methodology for evaluating ConocoPhillips’ existing oil spill preparedness programs. The evaluations were conducted at nine business units (BUs) in various countries whose operations ranged from deepwater exploration and production to onshore production to tanker operations. The main objective of this project was to achieve a high and consistent level of global preparedness through the identification of potential gaps in each BU’s preparedness program and implementation of associated improvement plans. The preparedness assurance process consisted of several components including:Detailed review of the oil spill/emergency response plans to evaluate contents and identify improvement opportunities and best practices.Evaluation of each BU’s Incident Management and Emergency Response Team size, structure, competency and lines of communication and coordinationEvaluation and validation of training and exercise programsEvaluation of Tiers 1, 2 and 3 response resource availability including dispersant stockpiles The results of the evaluations were shared with the BU emergency response leads and management and an improvement plan developed to address any identified gaps. Upon completion of the program, a report was prepared summarizing the preparedness evaluation results for each BU, highlighting best practices identified during the evaluations and providing a general assessment of what “good” looks like. This report was then shared with all BUs to, along with the individual improvement plans, enhance consistency and the level of spill preparedness across the company. The primary objective of this paper is to explain the assurance process that was developed, share key lessons learned during the implementation and provide a summary of the general findings such that it can provide a blue-print for use by other companies to inform the development of similar oil spill preparedness assurance programs.