Oil Spill In History Research Articles

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Trauma Signature of an Ecological Disaster

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon “British Petroleum (BP)” oil spill was a mega-disaster characterized as the petroleum industry’s largest-volume marine oil spill in history. Following a “wellhead blowout” that destroyed the drilling platform, 4.9 million barrels of petroleum flowed into the Gulf of Mexico over 87 days and the spill expanded to cover 68,000 square miles of sea surface. However, despite the expansive scope of the event, systematic surveys of affected coastal populations found only modest effects on mental health and substance abuse. An established trauma signature (TSIG) methodology was used to examine the psychological consequences in relation to exposure to the unique constellation of hazards associated with the spill. A hazard profile, a matrix of psychological stressors, and a “trauma signature” summary for the affected Gulf Coast population--in terms of exposure to hazard, loss, and change--were created specifically for this human-generated ecological disaster. Psychological risk characteristics of this event included: human causation featuring corporate culpability, large spill volume, protracted duration, coastal contamination from petroleum products, severe ecological damage, disruption of Gulf Coast industries and tourism, and extensive media coverage. The multiple impact effect was notable due to prior exposure of the region to Hurricane Katrina. These stressors were counterbalanced by the relative absence of other prominent risks for distress and psychopathology. Coastal residents did not experience significant onshore spill-related mortality or severe injury, shortages of survival needs, disruption of vital services (health care, schools, utilities, communications, and transportation), loss of homes, population displacement, destruction of the built environment, or loss of social supports. Initial acute economic losses were partially offset by large-sum BP payments for cleanup and recovery of the coastal economy. Not only did Gulf Coast populations display remarkable resilience in the face of daunting challenges, the behavioral health impact of the Deepwater Horizon spill appears to have been blunted by the absence of major evidence-based risks for psychological distress and disorder, the exemplary response, and the infusion of economic resources.

Monitoring and Modeling the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Record‐Breaking Enterprise

On 20 April 2010, an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon oil drilling platform killed 11 people, and the subsequent blowout of the deepwater wellhead sparked one of the most costly oil spills in history. In the days and months that followed, researchers and disaster response crews flocked to the Gulf of Mexico to study, assess, and guide cleanup operations. In the AGU monograph Monitoring and Modeling the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: A Record‐Breaking Enterprise, editors Yonggang Liu, Amy MacFadyen, Zhen‐Gang Ji, and Robert H. Weisberg pull together the results of the state‐of‐the‐art rapid response research conducted during the Gulf oil spill. Here Eos talks to Yonggang Liu.

Human error analysis of the Macondo well blowout

The Macondo well blowout resulted in 11 fatalities and caused the largest nonintentional oil spill in history. The situation stemmed from a series of human errors through all stages of the project leading up to the blowout and subsequent explosion. These errors include faulty interpretation of signals indicating problems with well and safety system integrity, inappropriate modifications to safety systems, inadequate design of critical systems, failure to provide redundancy in the design stage, failure to adhere to administrative controls for the safe operation, failure to follow the American Petroleum Institute Recommended Practices 75 on drilling mud circulation, and others. Twenty five specific errors have been identified and classified into eight categories. The results show that the majority of the errors are latent errors and caused by poor leadership in the organization or management. In order to resolve these issues it is necessary to create a safety culture in which safety is paramount in operations and facilities. There are many lessons learned from this incident, but the most important lesson is that safety must be a way of life, beginning in the design stage and carrying through the project life cycle. © 2013 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Process Saf Prog 32: –, 2013

Does time heal all wounds? Community attachment, natural resource employment, and health impacts in the wake of the BP Deepwater Horizon disaster

On April 20, 2010, the BP-leased Deepwater Horizon (BP-DH) oil rig exploded, resulting in the largest marine oil spill in history. In this paper we utilize one-of-a-kind household survey data—the Louisiana Community Oil Spill Survey—to examine the impacts of the BP-DH disaster on the mental and physical health of spill affected residents in coastal Louisiana, with a special focus on the influence of community attachment and natural resource employment. We find that levels of both negative mental and physical health were significantly more pronounced at baseline compared to later time points. We show that greater community attachment is linked to lower levels of negative health impacts in the wake of the oil spill and that the disaster had a uniquely negative impact on households involved in the fishing industry. Further, we find evidence that the relationship between community attachment and mental health is more pronounced at later points in time, and that the negative health impacts on fishers have worsened over time. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

Distribution of hydrocarbons released during the 2010 MC252 oil spill in deep offshore waters

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform on April 20th, 2010 resulted in the second largest oil spill in history. The distribution and chemical composition of hydrocarbons within a 45 km radius of the blowout was investigated. All available certified hydrocarbon data were acquired from NOAA and BP. The distribution of hydrocarbons was found to be dispersed over a wider area in subsurface waters than previously predicted or reported. A deepwater hydrocarbon plume predicted by models was verified and additional plumes were identified. Because the samples were not collected systematically, there is still some question about the presence and persistence of an 865 m depth plume predicted by models. Water soluble compounds were extracted from the rising oil in deepwater, and were found at potentially toxic levels outside of areas previously reported to contain hydrocarbons. Application of subsurface dispersants was found to increase hydrocarbon concentration in subsurface waters.

AUTOMATIC CALCULATION OF OIL SLICK AREA FROM MULTIPLE SAR ACQUISITIONS FOR DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL

Abstract. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill occurred in the Gulf of Mexico in April 2010 and became the largest accidental marine oil spill in history. Oil leaked continuously between April 20th and July 15th of 2010, releasing about 780, 000m3 of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The oil spill caused extensive economical and ecological damage to the areas it reached, affecting the marine and wildlife habitats along with fishing and tourism industries. For oil spill mitigation efforts, it is important to determine the areal extent, and most recent position of the contaminated area. Satellitebased oil pollution monitoring systems are being used for monitoring and in hazard response efforts. Due to their high accuracy, frequent acquisitions, large area coverage and day-and-night operation Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellites are a major contributer of monitoring marine environments for oil spill detection. We developed a new algorithm for determining the extent of the oil spill from multiple SAR images, that are acquired with short temporal intervals using different sensors. Combining the multi-polarization data from Radarsat-2 (C-band), Envisat ASAR (C-band) and Alos-PALSAR (L-band) sensors, we calculate the extent of the oil spill with higher accuracy than what is possible from only one image. Short temporal interval between acquisitions (hours to days) allow us to eliminate artifacts and increase accuracy. Our algorithm works automatically without any human intervention to deliver products in a timely manner in time critical operations. Acquisitions using different SAR sensors are radiometrically calibrated and processed individually to obtain oil spill area extent. Furthermore the algorithm provides probability maps of the areas that are classified as oil slick. This probability information is then combined with other acquisitions to estimate the combined probability map for the spill.

The Future of Offshore Oil Drilling — An Evaluation of the Economic, Environmental and Political Consequences of the Deepwater Horizon Incident

Oil exploration and sustainability often seem an oxymoron, especially because one year ago the Deepwater Horizon incident turned into one of the largest marine oil spill in history. Marine and costal life, the population, as well as the entire ecosystem were affected and additionally harmed by the spread of chemicals in the course of clean-up efforts. However, environmental damage is not the only consequence. Lost revenues by the local fishing, tourism and other industries affect the livelihoods of many. One year after the incident, its magnitude and the not fully coordinated response efforts remain a major topic of environmental management discussions. This paper provides an economic, environmental and political assessment of the Deepwater Horizon incident. A look into the future of offshore drilling suggests that it is not only here to stay, but will grow in importance. We must therefore learn to improve the environmental management of offshore drilling.

Macondo crude oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill disrupts specific developmental processes during zebrafish embryogenesis

BackgroundThe Deepwater Horizon disaster was the largest marine oil spill in history, and total vertical exposure of oil to the water column suggests it could impact an enormous diversity of ecosystems. The most vulnerable organisms are those encountering these pollutants during their early life stages. Water-soluble components of crude oil and specific polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to cause defects in cardiovascular and craniofacial development in a variety of teleost species, but the developmental origins of these defects have yet to be determined. We have adopted zebrafish, Danio rerio, as a model to test whether water accumulated fractions (WAF) of the Deepwater Horizon oil could impact specific embryonic developmental processes. While not a native species to the Gulf waters, the developmental biology of zebrafish has been well characterized and makes it a powerful model system to reveal the cellular and molecular mechanisms behind Macondo crude toxicity.ResultsWAF of Macondo crude oil sampled during the oil spill was used to treat zebrafish throughout embryonic and larval development. Our results indicate that the Macondo crude oil causes a variety of significant defects in zebrafish embryogenesis, but these defects have specific developmental origins. WAF treatments caused defects in craniofacial development and circulatory function similar to previous reports, but we extend these results to show they are likely derived from an earlier defect in neural crest cell development. Moreover, we demonstrate that exposure to WAFs causes a variety of novel deformations in specific developmental processes, including programmed cell death, locomotor behavior, sensory and motor axon pathfinding, somitogenesis and muscle patterning. Interestingly, the severity of cell death and muscle phenotypes decreased over several months of repeated analysis, which was correlated with a rapid drop-off in the aromatic and alkane hydrocarbon components of the oil.ConclusionsWhether these teratogenic effects are unique to the oil from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill or generalizable for most crude oil types remains to be determined. This work establishes a model for further investigation into the molecular mechanisms behind crude oil mediated deformations. In addition, due to the high conservation of genetic and cellular processes between zebrafish and other vertebrates, our work also provides a platform for more focused assessment of the impact that the Deepwater Horizon oil spill has had on the early life stages of native fish species in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.

Could residual oil from theExxon Valdezspill create a long-term population “sink” for sea otters in Alaska?

Over 20 years ago, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spilled 42 million L of crude oil into the waters of Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA. At the time of the spill, the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) population inhabiting the spill area suffered substantial acute injuries and loss. Subsequent research has resulted in one of the best-studied species responses to an oil spill in history. However, the question remains: Is the spill still influencing the Prince William Sound sea otter population? Here we fit time-varying population models to data for the sea otter population of western Prince William Sound to quantify the duration and extent of mortality effects from the spill. We hypothesize that the patchy nature of residual oil left in the environment has created a source-sink population dynamic. We fit models using the age distributions of both living and dying animals and estimates of sea otter population size to predict the number of sea otters in the hypothesized sink population and the number lost to this sink due to chronic exposure to residual oil. Our results suggest that the sink population has remained at just over 900 individuals (95% CI: 606-960) between 1990 and 2009, during which time prime-age survival remained 2-6% below pre-spill levels. This reduced survival led to chronic losses of ;900 animals over the past two decades, which is similar in magnitude to the number of sea otter deaths documented in western Prince William Sound during the acute phase of the spill. However, the unaffected source population appears to be counterbalancing these losses, with the model indicating that the sea otter population increased from ;2150 individuals in 1990 to nearly 3000 in 2009. The most optimistic interpretation of our results suggests that mortality effects dissipated between 2005 and 2007. Our results suggest that residual oil can affect wildlife populations on time scales much longer than previously believed and that cumulative chronic effects can be as significant as acute effects. Further, source-sink population dynamics can explain the slow recovery observed in the spill-affected western Prince William Sound sea otter population and are consistent with available data.

Fishing Communities Assisting in a Response: MC252 Vessel of Opportunity-the Mobile, Alabama Model

ABSTRACT On April 20, 2010 the BP exploratory drilling rig Deepwater Horizon exploded killing 11 people and creating the largest oil spill in history. As BP was mobilizing response resources from all over the U.S. and the World, the federal government declared the incident to be a Spill of National Significance (SONS). A SONS event is when a response is so large that geographic areas are competing for the same limited number of resources. The Unified Command (UC) created the Vessel of Opportunity (VOO) Program. This program recruited commercial and recreational fishing vessels to assist with response activities in the offshore environment. The program was designed in three (3) steps. The first step was for vessel owners, captains, and crew to participate in the Vessel of Opportunity (VOO) Introductory Course. This course educated participants to BP's safety standards and educated them on what may be asked of them and their vessel. Step two was the self-certification of vessels which were required to meet ...

TRANSFORMING DEEP-SEA DRILLING

A CORNERSTONE of U.S. energy policy—domestic offshore oil and natural gas drilling and production—is likely to be transformed with enactment of recommendations of the presidentially appointed National Commission on the BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill & Offshore Drilling. Gone would be a system in which a small, underfunded, and poorly trained agency does double time—collecting industry-paid royalties while attempting to oversee industrial safety. In its place would be a new independent safety-only agency that uses risk-based regulations and more and better-trained inspectors to review and implement industry-developed, site-specific drilling management plans. Since last May, the seven-member oversight panel has held hearings, interviewed witnesses and experts, and traveled the Gulf of Mexico as it studied the April 20, 2010, BP oil rig accident that killed 11 workers and resulted in the worst offshore oil spill in history. The panel’s review grew to include industry operations and government regulation of o...

Environmental Health Insights into the 2010 Deepwater Horizon (BP) Oil Blowout

Environmental Health Insights into the 2010 Deepwater Horizon (BP) Oil Blowout

Biological impacts of oil pollution and cleaning in the intertidal zone of exposed sandy beaches: Preliminary study of the “Prestige” oil spill

On 13th September 2002, the oil tanker “Prestige” sunk off the Galician coast, causing one of the most important oil spills in history, which affected the entire coastline, particularly the exposed rocky shores and sandy beaches. Seventeen exposed sandy beaches were analysed along the Galician coast, in May 2003, and results were compared with previous data for September 1995 and 1996. The intertidal areas of the beaches were sampled in four tidal zones along the beach profile: swash, resurgence, retention and dry sand. Six cores of 0.05 m 2 were taken at each level and washed through a 1 mm mesh. Sediment samples were collected at each level for sediment analysis. The species were grouped into six main taxonomic groups: polychaetes, molluscs, marine crustaceans, semi-terrestrial crustaceans, insects and others. The total number of species was calculated in each group before and after the oil spill. The disturbance effect on each tidal level was determined. A decrease in the species richness was generally observed in all the studied beaches, although this decrease was not homogeneous in all the taxonomic groups. Polychaetes, insects, semi-terrestrial crustaceans and others lost species in all cases, while marine crustaceans did not show this tendency, losing species in some cases and gaining in others. The most affected beaches lost up to 66.7% of the total species richness after the oil spill. The most disturbed levels were swash, losing most of the polychaetes, and dry sand, with decrease in insects and semi-terrestrial crustaceans in many cases. Dry sand level received a high amount of oil and was more affected by grooming and cleaning activities where fuel and polluted material were removed, including algal wrack that is used by the supratidal macrofauna as food and shelter.

THE GULF WAR OIL SPILL TWELVE YEARS LATER: CONSEQUENCES OF ECO-TERRORISM

ABSTRACT The intentional release of an estimated 11 million barrels of oil during the 1991 Gulf War was the largest oil spill in history. An assessment of the physical, chemical, and ecological impacts of this spill shows that, 12 years later, oil residues and habitat modifications continue to have toxic effects on intertidal communities. As of 2003, there are an estimated 8 million cubic meters of oiled sediment remaining along the 803 km of impacted shoreline in Saudi Arabia. Of this volume, 45% occurs in muddy tidal flats and 23% in salt marshes and mangroves. Much of the oil in these sheltered habitats occurs as oiled crab burrows, with liquid oil remaining in the burrows to depths that exceed 50 cm. These habitats show the lowest degree of ecological recovery since the spill, with 87% of the upper intertidal zones of mangroves and marshes and 71 % of muddy tidal flats having reduced species richness and a disturbed community structure. Those habitats exposed to the greatest amount of wave activity contain the smallest amount of residual oil; however, on outer sand beaches, the oil is commonly buried to depths exceeding 1 m. The factors that affect the ecological recovery of the intertidal habitats include: 1) The chemical toxicity of the oil residues; 2) the physical toxicity of heavy and hardened oil residues; 3) other physical barriers that affect seed germination of plants, settlement of larvae, and burrowing; 4) limited sources for recruitment of biota; 5) reduced hydrological functioning of tidal channels. This study shows the importance of oil removal as the first phase of habitat recovery. It also indicates the potential for large-scale damage by blatant acts of eco-terrorism.

Hydrocarbon characterization and weathering of oiled intertidal sediments along the Saudi Arabian Coast two years after the Gulf War oil spill

Two years after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill, shoreline areas of Dawhat al Musallamiyah and Dawhat ad Dafi along the Saudi Arabian Coast impacted by the largest oil spill in history were revisited to assess the changes, from weathering, in hydrocarbon composition of residual oil in intertidal sediments. This was done to determine the effect of different geomorphic habitats from exposed to sheltered on the extent of weathering of these oiled sediments. This 1993 study was a continuation of the nearshore geochemistry processes study conducted as part of the scientific expedition on the R/V Mt. Mitchell in the Arabian Sea in 1992. Over 70 surface and subsurface shoreline sediment samples were analyzed for saturated hydrocarbons (SHCs), defined as n-alkanes from C 10 to C 32 and selected isoprenoids, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), defined as individual and alkyl homologues of the two- through six-ringed PAHs including the sulfur heterocyclic compounds. The extent of weathering of hydrocarbons over the two-year period was determined for sediments in each of the different shoreline habitats based on SHC and PAH distribution pattern, and diagnostic ratios, such as ratios of the C 2- and C 3-alkyl homologues of the distribution pattern, and chrysenes/benz(a)anthracenes. A classification depicting four stages in weathering (from 1 [fresh] to 4 [advanced]) was established for both SHCs and PAHs. Some sediments contained relatively fresh oil that showed no change in SHC or PAH distributions over the two years in the environment. Other sediments showed extensive weathering, involving multiple weathering stage changes. For SHCs, approximately 66% of the oiled sediment samples had progressed to the most advanced weathering stage (Stage IV) by the end of the second year. In contrast, only 25% of the oiled samples had PAHs at full Stage IV weathering. For the SHC hydrocarbons, changes in SHC distributions looked to be principally caused by selective microbial degradation of the n-alkanes. Weathering of spilled oil PAHs was a combination of losses of smaller PAH families (naphthalenes) and smaller carbon alkyl groups within a PAH family. The least weathered oiled sediments were predominantly from subsurface sediments in habitats with surface seals or in sheltered muddy areas which had reduced exposure from physical weathering processes involving air, sunlight, tidal flushing, and reworking by waves. Seventy percent of the subsurface samples contained residual oil that was relatively fresh (Stage I or II), whereas 20% of the surface samples had relatively fresh residual oil. The heavily oiled subsurface sediments, even in exposed habitat environments, showed the least weathered oil, particularly where liquid oil remained trapped under hardened near-surface oil residual (crust and pavement). Extremely weathered oiled sediments were found mostly in exposed or moderately exposed near-surface sediment habitats. PAHs in oiled sediments were examined for selective degradation of certain alkyl groups or isomers within an alkyl group by microbial action. PAH distributions of the residual oil indicated that selective microbial degradation of alkyl groups was neglibible and the loss of PAHs by any weathering mechanism (microbial, physical, chemical) looked to follow, at least in this two-year time period after the spill, the weathering pathway predicted by the physical processes (evaporation).

Sounding Out Science

The Exxon Valdez catastrophe, which soiled Alaska`s Prince William Sound in 1989, was the most studied oil spill in history. But because of how they framed their inquiries, investigators have learned less than they could about how nature heals itself. The studies of Exxon and the state of Alaska - including the departments of Fish and Game and of Environmental Conservation - conducted to prove their respective points, were kept largely secret untill legal settlements were reached. This secrecy reduced most of the pillars of science to rubble: out went scientific dialog, data sharing, and for some parties, peer view. Millions of dollars were shelled out in duplicate studies that reached opposite conclusions. Beyond the quality of science lies the public interpretation of science. Even though NOAA has shown that cleaning up can do more harm than good, demands to clean up persist. 7 figs.

Novel Scientific Evidence of Intoxication: Acoustic Analysis of Voice Recordings from the Exxon Valdez

On March 24, 1989, the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, causing the worst accidental oil spill in history. Captain Joseph J. Hazelwood was in command of the ship, although he was not on the bridge at the time of the accident. Almost immediately, rumors and allegations surfaced suggesting that Hazelwood was intoxicated, but no hard evidence came to light. A captain at sea is a long way from the nearest police officer with a breathalyzer. Hazelwood denied having been intoxicated, and an Alaska jury acquitted him of the charge. There seems to be no way to prove whether or not Hazelwood really had been drinking. Or is there? Recent work in the Speech Research Laboratory at Indiana University’s Psychology Department suggests that intoxication can be detected by acoustic-phonetic analyses of a suspect’s voice.1 The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), the federal agency charged with investigating the Exxon Valdez accident, made available to the authors copies of tape recordings of conversations which took place between Captain Hazelwood and the Coast Guard from before, during, and after the accident.2 Analyses of these tapes suggest that Hazelwood was indeed intoxicated when his ship ran aground.3 This novel application of speech science techniques for measuring the effects of alcohol on speech has never, to the knowledge of the authors, been attempted in a civil or criminal case. Our analyses raise several obvious questions: Are the results reliable? How certain can we be that Captain Hazelwood was intoxicated? And, if this new testing procedure, based on voice recordings, can indeed determine that someone was under the influence of alcohol, are the results admissible in court? The answers to these questions have implications beyond their obvious application to determining fault in the more than three hundred pending lawsuits concerning the Alaska oil spill.4 In many cases, defendants may be far away from the nearest breathalyzer or may refuse to submit to blood-alcohol tests. In the absence of reliable, objective evidence of whether a defendant had been drinking, courts must rely on a presumption of guilt based on a defendant’s refusal to take a test,5 admit the speculative opinions of witnesses, or let the jury guess after listening to tape recordings.6 If a new measurement procedure exists that can, at least in some cases, provide objective indications of a person’s physical state or condition, then courts could more reliably convict the guilty and acquit the innocent in cases where no chemical blood test results exist. In this article, we describe this new testing procedure, using the analyses performed on Captain Hazelwood’s voice as an example. We then discuss whether the results should be admissible under the rules governing novel scientific evidence. We conclude that the kinds of acoustic-phonetic analyses described in this article produce reliable and relevant evidence that should be admitted when supported by proper expert testimony. We do not claim that speech analyses conclusively prove that Captain Hazelwood was intoxicated when the Exxon Valdez ran aground. Rather, we believe that the analyses of Hazelwood’s voice produce data consistent with intoxication. They therefore should be admitted into evidence and considered by the jury along with other relevant information.

ESTABLISHING A WILDLIFE RESPONSE AFTER THE ASHLAND OIL SPILL

ABSTRACT On January 2, 1988, an Ashland Oil Company storage tank in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, ruptured, spilling about 750,000 gallons of No. 2 diesel fuel into the Monongahela River. This spill, the largest documented inland oil spill in history, occurred in an area that was unprepared for this kind of environmental disaster. Tri-State Bird Rescue & Research, Inc., was requested by state and federal authorities to establish a wildlife response plan, set up a treatment center, and train professionals and volunteers to treat contaminated wildlife. Using previously developed training packets and supplies lists, Tri-State personnel established task forces, trained volunteers in tested medical protocols, equipped a center, and began treating birds within 12 hours of their arrival at the scene. While only 5 percent of the birds affected could be retrieved, 94 percent of the birds retrieved were successfully treated, released, and subsequently monitored in the wild. This paper focuses on the need for rapid response, adherence to protocols, interagency communication, and hands-on experience in establishing a successful response to wildlife contaminated by oil.