Oil Sands Plant Research Articles

Analyzing Relationships of Conductivity and Alkalinity Using Historical Datasets from Streams in Northern Alberta, Canada

Many measurements, tools, and approaches are used to identify and track the influence of human activities on the physicochemical status of streams. Commonly, chemical concentrations are utilized, but in some areas, such as downstream of coal mines, capacity indices such as specific conductivity have also been used to estimate exposure and risk. However, straightforward tools such as conductivity may not identify human influences in areas with saline groundwater inputs, diffuse exposure pathways, and few discharges of industrial wastewater. Researchers have further suggested in conductivity relative to alkalinity may also reveal human influences, but little has been done to evaluate the utility and necessity of this approach. Using data from 16 example sites in the Peace, Athabasca, and Slave Rivers in northern Alberta (but focusing on tributaries in Canada’s oil sands region) available from multiple regional, provincial, and national monitoring programs, we calculated residual conductivity and determined if it could identify the potential influence of human activity on streams in northern Alberta. To account for unequal sampling intervals within the compiled datasets, but also to include multiple covariates, we calculated residual conductivity using the Generalized Estimating Equation (GEE). The Pearson residuals of the GEEs were then plotted over time along with three smoothers (two locally weighted regressions and one General Additive Model) and a linear model to estimate temporal patterns remaining relative to known changes in human activity in the region or adjacent to the study locations. Although there are some inconsistencies in the results and large gaps in the data at some sites, many increases in residual conductivity correspond with known events in northern Alberta, including the potential influence of site preparation at oil sands mines, reductions in particulate emissions, mining, spills, petroleum coke combustion at one oil sands plant, and hydroelectric development in the Peace basin. Some differences in raw conductivity measurements over time were also indicated. Overall, these analyses suggest residual conductivity may identify broad influences of human activity and be a suitable tool for augmenting broad surveillance monitoring of water bodies alongside current approaches. However, some anomalous increases without apparent explanations were also observed suggesting changes in residual conductivity may also be well-suited for prompting additional and more detailed studies or analyses of existing data.

Wear resistance characteristics of materials used in oil sands plants

The surge in demand for natural resources has shifted the focus of the international community toward the development of oil sands, shale oil, shale gas and other non-traditional energy sources. In extreme environments, materials used in petroleum gas plant modules are accompanied by various problems caused by low-temperature brittleness such as damage, corrosion and wear. Many researchers have been conducting studies to discover a suitable material whose lifespan could be improved by performing characteristics analyses and performance assessments. In this study, a material characteristics assessment was conducted based on a wear resistance test on materials that are commonly used at oil sands plants. Prior to a wear resistance test, a chemical composition analysis was performed on each of the specimens, and tensile, impact, hardness and corrosion tests were carried out to examine the correlation between their results with the results of the wear resistance test. Each test was performed according to ASTM G 105 standards, and the change in weight according to wear length was analysed for each material to determine the related tendencies. In addition, the results of the wear test were derived by analysing the change in the mass of the specimen before and after the test, and the surface roughness was assessed to analyse the performance related to wear and define the service life. The aim was to use these results to select a material that would be suitable for the abrasive environment of the key equipment and materials of plants.

오일샌드 플랜트용 금속소재의 마모 특성에 대한 실험적 연구

오일샌드 플랜트용 금속소재의 마모 특성에 대한 실험적 연구

비투멘 유체 분리를 위한 오일처리공정의 설계와 평가

The purpose of this paper is to define criteria to be used as part of the engineering design for an oil sands plant equipped with the steam assisted gravity drainage process. In this effort, the oil treatment process of an oil sands plant on a pilot scale was focused for detailed investigation. The thermodynamic properties of the process fluid, which is mainly composed of bitumen and water, were estimated with the CPA model. The commercial tool aspen HYSYS was used for the analysis throughout this work along with the provided input data and some necessary assumptions. From the simulation results, the heat and mass balances for a 300 BPD plant were established in order to define standard data for its modular design. In particular, the basis of design for equipment size, heat transfer areas, capital cost and operation cost was extensively discussed.

Evaluation of CO2 storage capacity in Devonian hydrocarbon reservoirs for emissions from oil sands operations in the Athabasca area, Canada

Abstract Geological Storage of CO 2 has been identified by the provincial Alberta government as the major component of its strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the province. The issue of reducing atmospheric CO 2 emissions is particularly important for oil sands plants, whose emissions in 2013 were in the order of 55 Mt CO 2 eq. Unfortunately, the oil sands operations are located near the shallow edge of the Alberta basin, which is not suitable for CO 2 storage. However, CO 2 storage in deep Devonian oil and gas reservoirs located westward of the oil sands operations may constitute a solution for storing CO 2 from these operations. The volumetric CO 2 storage capacity in 1225 oil and gas reservoirs in 13 different Devonian formations in an area covering approximately 126,000 km2 was estimated using information from reserves and production databases. The CO 2 storage capacity has been calculated by reservoir type and by production stage. The aggregate CO 2 storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs in the Devonian sedimentary succession in the study area is in the order of ∼700 Mt. However, most of the reservoirs have small storage capacity, and only 9 oil reservoirs and 10 gas reservoirs have CO 2 storage capacity greater than 5 Mt each, for a cumulative total of ∼447 Mt CO 2 . The strength of underlying aquifers was evaluated by performing material balance calculations for these 19 oil and gas reservoirs and it was found that they do not have a significant effect in reducing the CO 2 storage capacity of these reservoirs. The CO 2 storage capacity in the study area is bound to be greater if one considers the fact that, once the infrastructure, including pipelines, is built to bring CO 2 to any of these very large reservoirs, then smaller reservoirs in the same oil or gas field can be accessed with relatively minimal extra costs. The aggregate CO 2 storage capacity in the fields where the 19 very large oil and gas reservoirs are found has been considered as well, raising the CO 2 storage capacity in these fields to ∼491 Mt CO 2 . The storage capacity in oil reservoirs in the study area can be further increased by using CO 2 in enhanced oil recovery. Although 705 oil pools have been identified as being technically suitable for CO 2 -EOR, only 12 oil reservoirs have remaining oil in place greater than 60 million barrels that would economically justify implementation of CO 2 -EOR. Assuming various incremental recovery factors and net CO 2 utilization factors, the additional amount of CO 2 that may be stored in these 12 oil reservoirs varies between 31 and 412 Mt CO 2 , thus increasing the CO 2 storage capacity in these oil reservoirs. This evaluation shows that the potential CO 2 storage capacity in oil and gas reservoirs in Devonian strata west of the Athabasca oil sands area in Alberta is significant and has the potential to reduce the carbon footprint of the oil sands operations for several decades until other technological advances for reducing CO 2 emissions will come into being.

Typha latifolia plant performance and stand biomass in wetlands affected by surface oil sands mining

Stand productivity of the dominant macrophyte Typha latifolia may be constrained by salinity and pollution in the oil sands wetlands of northern Alberta. We compared the performance and stand biomass of T. latifolia plants established in oil sands industrial wetlands (directly exposed to byproduct processed materials), on-site indirectly-affected, and off-site natural wetlands. We studied T. latifolia physiology (gas exchange, leaf fluorescence), morphology, leaf chemistry, and stand biomass. Oil sands plants had lower stomatal conductance than plants in natural wetlands resulting in lower transpiration but unaffected net photosynthesis rates. Oil sands plants had smaller and lower numbers of green leaves than natural wetlands plants. T. latifolia stands established in oil sands wetlands had lower aboveground and total biomass compared to natural wetlands. Despite water chemistry differences, T. latifolia plant performance did not differ between oil sands wetlands types. However, there was a lower total stand biomass in industrial than in indirectly-affected wetlands. T. latifolia had an unaltered photosynthetic activity in the oil sands wetlands allowing for the maintenance of persistent plant stands. However, T. latifolia growth restrictions and a lower stand biomass in the oil sands wetlands probably compromise long-term reclamation objectives focused on the accumulation of organic sediment and peat.

Alberta’s Oil Sands: Hard Evidence, Missing Data, New Promises

Pitched battles are a regular occurrence in northern Alberta, Canada, as development of the province’s oil sands continues to expand. One ongoing battle—with another salvo launched in February 2011 with the leak of a European Commission report1—concerns how dirty oil sands are, relative to other fuels. Another concerns the influence of the oil sands industry in monitoring its own activity.2 In an effort to cut through the rhetoric of health advocates, industry representatives, environmentalists, government officials, and local residents, the Royal Society of Canada (RSC) selected and covered expenses for an expert panel to winnow out the facts. In a report issued 15 December 20103 the panel cited substantial evidence that efforts to extract oil from the Alberta deposits have degraded air, land, and water quality to varying degrees. The extent of the degradation is sometimes controversial; water quality data, in particular, are subject to differing interpretations and attributions of causality. However, the panel says that, based on publicly available evidence, there appear to be no significant human health threats to the general population either now or from development anticipated in the next decade or so. But the panel also warns that their conclusions come with a major caveat: there are major gaps in health and environmental data, risk assessments, government oversight, information transparency, industry efforts, and disaster preparedness. The health of the region could hinge on these gaps being addressed, particularly since, according to Travis Davies, a spokesman for the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers, 97% of projected oil extraction and processing is still to come. After the RSC panel reviewed reams of publicly available information on factors such as health status, air and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, land disturbance, and energy and water consumption, it concluded that “[t]he claim by some critics of the oil sands industry that it is the most environmentally destructive project on earth is not supported by the evidence. However, for Canada and Alberta, the oil sands industry involves major environmental issues on many fronts which must be addressed as a high priority.”3p293

Heartland Area Redwater reef saline aquifer CO2 storage project

Abstract The Heartland Area Redwater Project (HARP) for CO2 storage is investigating the technical and economic feasibility of injecting significant volumes of CO2 into the large water-saturated portion of a huge Devonian reef that is capped by a comparatively small oil reservoir, nevertheless the third largest oil pool in western Canada. The reef has a total areal extent of nearly 600 km2, is more than 1,000 meters deep and is up to 275 meters thick. Based on the high water injectivity in the reef, the potential exists to inject sustainably in excess of 1,000 tonnes of CO2 per day per well in the aquifer portion of the reef. Preliminary storage capacity estimates for the aquifer are in the order of one gigatonne of CO2. This storage site has the potential to store CO2 emissions in the order of several tens of Mt/yr from major emitters in central and northeastern Alberta such as oil sands plants, bitumen upgraders, refineries and petrochemical and fertilizer plants. The characteristics of this potential CO2 storage site are presented.

Application of Bicoherence Analysis on Vibration Data for Condition Based Monitoring of Rotating Machinery

Abstract Bicoherence or Bispectrum analysis is emerging as a new powerful technique in signal processing, especially in areas where traditional linear spectral analysis provides insufficient information. It is most effective in analyzing systems with non-linear coupling between frequencies. Faults in rotating machineries leave their signature on the vibration signal sensors and generally manifest themselves as a non-linear transformation in the vibration signal. Bicoherence analysis detects and quantifies the presence of non-linearity in the signal and thus indicates the severity of the fault in the machine. This paper demonstrates the use of bicoherence analysis on both simulated and rig-generated vibration data from a rub-effected rotor-stator system, and shows the application of bicoherence analysis on industrial data from final tailing pumps to detect impeller wear in an oil-sands plant. Keywords: Rotating Machinery, Fault Detection, Vibration, Bispectrum Analysis

Early growth response of container-grown selected woody boreal seedlings in amended composite tailings and tailings sand

Successful reclamation of saline–alkaline sites may be enhanced by revegetating with species that are tolerant to factors that limit normal plant growth. Boreal woody plants tested in this study have shown promise for use in saline habitats. This study was conducted to assess the effects of amendment treatments (peat, pulp waste, agriboost ®, a combination of pulp waste and fly ash, and mineral fertilizer) on the early growth of three hybrid poplar clones and three coniferous species. Twelve-week and 18-week container-grown hybrid poplar clones and coniferous species, respectively, were monitored for 12 weeks in pot culture in both composite tailings (CTs) and tailings sand (TS) materials obtained from the oil sands plant, Syncrude Canada Ltd., Ft. McMurray, Alberta. These substrates with low nutrients, organic matter, and water-holding capacities, were amended with different organic materials at different rates. Growth, as assessed by the volume increment in both substrates, was generally better for the first 6 weeks than for the last 6 weeks. Growth was reduced during the last 6 weeks due to nutrient depletion over time in these impoverished substrates. Overall, for both substrates, the mineral fertilizer, 20%, 40% and 60% peat were the best amendments treatments for poplar clones with NM-6 being the most productive clone. For coniferous species, 20% and 40% pulp or peat appear to be the best amendment treatments, with lodgepole pine being the most productive species. The inflexion point of the regression functions were found around 30% rate of the amendment materials. The results also indicated that peat and pulp waste were the best amendment treatments for both hybrid poplars and coniferous species whereas the agriboost and mix (combination of pulp waste and fly ash) were the worst.

Geological Sequestration of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin: Suitability Analysis

Abstract Geological sequestration of anthropogenic carbon dioxide is a potential solution to the release into the atmosphere of CO2, a greenhouse gas thought of as significantly contributing to the global warming trend observed since the beginning of the industrial revolution. Basically, CO2 can be sequestered in geological media:through enhanced oil recovery (EOR),by storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs,through replacement by CO2 of methane in deep coal beds (ECBMR),by injection into deep saline aquifers, and by storage in salt caverns. Criteria in assessing the suitability of a sedimentary basin for CO2 sequestration are:tectonism and geology,the flow of formation waters and geothermal regime, andthe existence of storage media (hydrocarbon reservoirs, coal seams, deep aquifers and salt structures). Generally, the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is suitable for CO2 sequestration by all means because it is tectonically stable, it has regional-scale aquifers confined by aquitards or aquicludes, and it has oil and gas reservoirs in various stages of depletion, uneconomic coal seams, and extensive salt beds. However, various regions in the basin have different degrees of suitability, ranging from not suitable along the eastern edge of the basin, to extremely suitable in southwestern and central Alberta. Most major CO2 producers, such as power plants and refineries around Edmonton, are found in regions that are unsuitable for CO2 sequestration in geological media; however, some, such as the oil sands plants in the Athabasca area, are in regions that are not suitable. This analysis of the suitability of the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin for CO2 sequestration in geological media should provide industry and governments with essential information needed for developing plans and policies in response to climate change effects of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. Introduction Human activity since the industrial revolution had the effect of increasing atmospheric concentrations of gases with a greenhouse effect, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), leading to climate warming and weather changes(1, 2). Because of its relative abundance compared with the other greenhouse gases, CO2 is by far the most important, being responsible for about 64% of the enhanced "greenhouse effect"(1). On a sectoral basis, the energy sector contributes globally the most (45%) to anthropogenic (produced by human activity) effects on climate change(3). The high use of fossil fuels (85% of the world's energy needs), foreseen to continue well into the future(2, 4), is the major contributor to increased emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere. Thus, a major challenge in mitigating anthropogenic (man-made) effects on climate change is the reduction of these emissions. Figure 1 shows Canada's profile in CO2 emissions by sector and by province. The profile of CO2 emissions in the Western Canada Sedimentary Basin is different from the national and other regions' profile because the basin is a major North American producer of fossil fuels.

Bitumen Recovery From Oil-sand Extraction Tailings: I. Bench-scale Tests

Abstract Conventional froth flotation, flotation columns, air-sparged hydrocyclones, and combinations of these were used to recover residual bitumen from extraction plant tailings in bench-scale tests. Intensifying the interaction between air bubbles and bitumen droplets in mechanically agitated flotation cells in conjunction with a quiescent separation process produced promising results. A flowsheet that combines the use of mechanically agitated flotation cells with a stationary separator was developed, which can be described as intensifying aeration and stationary separation processes. The results showed that this process is an effective approach to recover bitumen from tailings with low bitumen content. The flotation kinetics of bitumen were investigated in a batch flotation cell, which provided information on the relationship between retention (or flotation) time, bitumen recovery, and froth quality. Three flotation models (i.e., simple first-order model, Klimpel model, and fast/slow flotation model) were used to fit the kinetic data. The effect of operating parameters (i.e., impeller rotation speed and aeration rate) on bitumen flotation and the dispersion of bubbles and bitumen was also examined in a lab-scale flotation cell. The results generated are helpful in interpreting and optimizing the bitumen recovery process. Introduction The hot water flotation process is applied in a large-scale commercial operation for extracting bitumen from Athabasca oil sands. Tailings from bitumen extraction operations at the Suncor oil sands plant contain from 0.2 to 0.4% bitumen by mass. There is therefore considerable economic incentive to develop processes to recover oil from the tailings streams and, at the same time, to reduce the impact of tailings on the environment. In order to utilize these low-grade bitumen resources, benchscale tests of Suncor plant tailings were conducted at the Western Research Centre using conventional froth flotation, flotation columns, air-sparged hydrocyclones, and combinations of these units. The flotation kinetics of bitumen were investigated using a batch flotation cell, which provided information on the relationship between retention (or flotation) time, bitumen recovery, and froth quality. The effects of operating parameters (i.e., impeller rotation speed and aeration rate) on bitumen flotation and the dispersion of bubbles and bitumen were also examined in a lab-scale flotation cell. The results generated are helpful in interpreting and optimizing the bitumen recovery process. Flowsheet Development In the preliminary tests, an attempt was made to use a flotation cell, a flotation column, and an air-sparged hydrocyclone to recover bitumen from Suncor plant tailings containing 0.09% by mass bitumen at 60 ° C. The preliminary tests indicated that it is difficult to achieve acceptable results using column flotation because of poor bitumen aeration. This can be attributed to limited turbulence and/or attrition in the column which resulted in the lack of effective air bubblelbitumen collision and attachment. The results using an air-sparged hydrocyclone indicated that it tends to intensify bitumen aeration in the centrifugal field. However, attrition in the cyclone generated good-quality froth which reported to both the overflow and underflow of the cyclone, resulting in significant amounts of bitumen lost in the cyclone underflow stream.

Effect of high salinity tailings waters produced from gypsum treatment of oil sands tailings on plants of the boreal forest

Bitumen extraction methods currently in use in the operating oil sands plants produce large volumes of fluid tailings. Ions leached from the ore and added by process chemicals during the extraction process result in tailings waters containing elevated ionic content relative to the non-process-affected waters of the area, in particular the sodium, sulfate, and chloride ions. It is anticipated that the areas requiring reclamation will be affected by this high salinity of the process waters. The objectives of this study were to test the impact of a tailings alternative (consolidated tailings process, based on gypsum treatment of extraction tailings) on the viability of plant species of the northern boreal forest and to determine the relative salt tolerance and suitability of selected plant species for land reclamation. Seedlings were grown for 4 weeks in a greenhouse in solution culture containing mineral nutrients and various dilutions of consolidated tailings water and with Na 2SO 4 additions (1 g L −1 and 3 g L −1). Of all examined plant species, raspberry and strawberry seedlings were the most susceptible to damage, while the seedlings of white spruce, black spruce and lodgepole pine survived, but showed some effects. In the willow and aspen seedlings, there was a rapid loss of leaves, which were quickly replaced by new, morphologically different leaves. Dogwood and hybrid poplar showed high tolerance to all treatments.

Role of hydrophobic solids in the stability of oil sands fine tailings

Hydrophobic solids are known to occur in the fine tailings produced during bitumen extraction at both the Syncrude and Suncor oil sands plants. Removal of these solids, and associated residual bitumen, produces changed settling behaviour and subsequent dewatering of the remaining tailings. In this work a fractionation scheme has been developed that allows this hydrophobic component to be separated selectively from fine tailings. Two types of particulate solids, both having considerably higher organic carbon contents than the bulk tailings solids, have been identified. In one fraction the solids are completely hydrophobic (HPS), whereas the particles in the other fraction exhibit intermediate wetting characteristics (BWS). Each fraction represents ∼ 1.5–2 wt% of the total tailings. The solids have been characterized by particle size distribution, XPS and elemental, including heavy metal, analyses. Both fractions are capable of forming a flocculated structure by an agglomeration process involving residual bitumen and naphtha in amounts typically found in tailings ponds. Measurement of the change in sediment volume for the agglomerated fractions has been used to investigate this process. Results for both fractions show a significant increase in the final sediment volume after agglomeration. The increase in sediment volume implies the formation of a flocculated structure. Such a structure could enhance tailings stability by reinforcing the ultrafine solids gel network also present in tailings.

Wind-wave-induced suspension of mine tailings in disposal ponds – a case study

Linear wave theory and wave hindcasting are applied to derive an expression for the depth of water needed to prevent the wind-wave-induced suspension of sediments in mine tailings ponds. The depth is expressed as a function of four factors: the threshold velocity, the wind velocity, the fetch over which the wind blows, and a factor based on the statistical distribution of wave heights. This study was motivated by the need to determine the thickness of water required to prevent the suspension of sludge solids in existing and proposed tailings ponds at Syncrude Canada Ltd.'s oil sands plant. Although data relevant to this problem are used to provide a specific example, the results are applicable whenever sediment suspension is caused by fetch-limited, deep water, wind waves. The results should be of particular use when the available data set is limited, e.g., for proposed tailings ponds. Key words: linear wave theory, wave hindcasting, wind-wave-induced suspension, threshold velocity, sludge capping, reclamation ponds, mine tailings ponds.

Current reclamation approach at the Syncrude Oil Sands Plant

Current reclamation approach at the Syncrude Oil Sands Plant

Characterization of simple phenols in oil sands extraction‐process water

Abstract A simple aqueous acetylation method was successfully applied to the analysis of ppb to low ppm levels of phenolic compounds in waste‐waters from the Syncrude Canada Ltd. oil sands plant in northern Alberta. Phenolics in process‐affected waters, as well as surface and ground waters were extracted as acetate derivatives from aqueous solution, quantitated by FID‐GC and identified by GC‐MS. Phenol, cresols and several other alkylphenols were identified in tailings pond waters whereas only traces of phenol and the cresols could be detected in other samples analyzed.

Prospects for the Development of Mineable Oil Sands

In addressing the potential for the major development of mineable oil sands, one must begin with a certain sense of weariness that such projects continue to be only a topic of discussion. Looking at Canada's, and in particular Alberta's stagnant economy in the first half of 1983, one can imagine the benefits that would be realized today and in the future if a mineable oil sands project were under active development. Instead, we continue to discuss future prospects while failing to realize present benefits. Large capital intensive energy projects, such as a mineable oil sands plant, have the potential to be a major stimulus to the Canadian economy. In this paper we address the magnitude of that potential, offer some thoughts on why such projects are not proceeding in 1983, discuss the potential for a reduction in project scale, and give a perspective that might promote future development.

The Western LNG Project

Introduction The Western LNG Project is one of the last "megaprojects" which is still being actively pursued in Canada because the oil sands plants, the Arctic Pilot Plant and the Foothills Pipeline are all in various stages of shelving or mothballing. Canada needs the Western LNG Project, and Dame Petroleum Limited is working very hard to bring it into being. This paper will provide a little history, will briefly outline the project, and will indicate our progress to date. In 1978 Dome, a key player in Alberta ethane supply identified a surplus of ethane developing in Alberta and saw potential in British Columbia. At the time the surplus was in excess of requirements for Alberta and other traditional markets, consequently an approach was made for sales to Japan. To make a long story short, the ethane surplus disappeared due to expansion plans for petrochemical developments in Alberta and, as a substitute energy export into Japan, the Western LNG Project came into being. The years 1980 and 1981 were the "years of the market "where the principal project activity was centered around obtaining the sales agreement which was signed in its final form March 20, 1982. The year 1982 was, and is, the "year of the regulatory approvals ", governments permitting, 1983 will be the "year of the engineer" when we can complete our design and proceed with the construction. Project Description Dome Petroleum Limited and NIC Resources Inc. (a Canadian subsidiary of Nissho Iwai Corporation of Japan), signed the agreement for the sale of liquefied natural gas to five major Japanese utility companies. Nissho Iwai is a major Japanese trading company, the largest in Japan in the area of LNG. Contingent upon obtaining the necessary Canadian government approvals and assuming our plans are in place, deliveries will begin in 1986. Under a 20-year 100 per cent take-or-pay purchase agreement, annual deliveries will total 2.9 million tonnes (154 billion cubic feet) by 1989. Other Canadian participants could include NOVA, An Alberta Corporation, TransCanada Pipeline Limited and British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation. The natural gas will be converted to liquid at the Grassy Point site, 30 kilometres north of Prince Rupert, British Columbia. The LNG will then be transported to Japan in five conventional marine carriers each having a capacity of 125 thousand cubic metres (2.7 billion cubic feet) of liquefied natural gas. Upon reaching Japan, the LNG will be sold to the five major Japanese utility companies. Figure 1 presents a schematic representation of the project. A joint Alberta, British Columbia natural gas supply is proposed. Of the total peak requirements of 451 MMcf/d, Alberta will provide 338 MMcfl/d (peak day) in the first phase of the project. The remainder of the natural gas, approximately 113 MMcf /d (peak day), will be supplied by British Columbia. The province recently conducted hearings to determine the amount of surplus gas available in B.C. and analyze the projects. The Western LNG Project was selected.

Canada

Despite energy shortages, recent weeks have seen the collapse or at least postponement of three major energy projects in Canada: the Cold Lake (Alberta) heavy oil plant, the Alsands oil sands plant, and the Alaska Highway natural gas pipeline. All have fallen victim to the combination of high interest rates and increasing doubts that oil prices will continue to rise at an annual rate of five percent in real terms. Current energy problems and policies are discussed including decline of oil reserves, expanded domestic use and export of Canadian natural gas, expansion of the nuclear energy program, demand for electricity, and energy conservation. (JMT)