Soybean Oil Content Research Articles

Prediction of protein and oil contents in soybeans using fluorescence excitation emission matrix

To investigate the potential of fluorescence spectroscopy in evaluating soybean protein and oil content, excitation emission matrix (EEM) was measured on 34 samples of soybean flours using a front-face measurement, and the accuracy of the protein and oil content prediction was evaluated. The EEM showed four main peaks at excitation/emission (Ex/Em) wavelengths of 230/335, 285/335, 365/475, and 435/495 nm. Furthermore, second derivative synchronous fluorescence (SDSF) spectra were extracted from the EEMs, and partial least square regression and support vector machine models were developed on each of the EEMs and SDSF spectra. The R2 values reached 0.86 and 0.74 for protein and oil, respectively. From the loading spectra, fluorescence at Ex/Em of 230–285/335 nm and 350/500 nm mainly contribute to the protein and oil content prediction, respectively. Those results revealed the potential of fluorescence spectroscopy as a tool for a rapid prediction of soybean protein and oil content.

Nondestructive phenotyping fatty acid trait of single soybean seeds using reflective hyperspectral imagery

AbstractSoybean (Glycine max) is one of the most economically important crops in the world and is used widely for different purposes. Breeding programs have developed new varieties with desired traits, including altered fatty acid profiles and levitated protein content. The breeding process involves the selection of elite genotypes from a large number of experimental lines, which is time‐consuming and costly. This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of a reflective hyperspectral imaging system in classifying the fatty acid content of single soybean seeds for high‐throughput phenotyping high oleic soybean cultivars. A hyperspectral imager was used to take hyperspectral images of 100 soybean seeds of two varieties. After comparing the performance of different methods for data preprocessing, featured spectral patterns were extracted to predict oleic acid and linoleic acid content using a successive projection algorithm. Results showed that the spectral reflectance of soybean seeds was able to differentiate different cultivars. The spectral information of selected regions of interest from the hyperspectral images of single seeds could reflect the spectral information of whole seeds. It is found that the classification models based on raw spectra performed the best in estimating the content of oleic acid and linoleic acid. The classification accuracy of the calibration for oleic acid and linoleic acid was both 100%, and the classification accuracy of validation was 90 and 93.3%, respectively. The results indicate that the reflective hyperspectral imaging technology might be used as a rapid and nondestructive tool to quantify the oleic acid content and linoleic acid content of single soybean seeds for high‐throughput phenotyping high oleic soybean.Practical ApplicationsIt is the interest of soybean breeders to develop high oleic soybean varieties that are in great demand. Studies indicate that the major factors affecting soybean oil content are oleic acid and linoleic acid. However, the nutritional values of soybean seeds, such as sugar, protein, oil, and fatty acids, are commonly measured using wet chemistry analysis, which is destructive, time‐consuming, and expensive. Although NIR spectroscopy can improve efficiency and simplify the measurement procedure, it still requires a large number of seeds. In breeding programs, a single seed with known oleic content is needed for further seed development. Bulk‐seed measurement using spectroscopy is not selective and would not determine the oleic profile of single seeds. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop a high‐throughput and nondestructive method to quantify the nutritional values of individual seeds for precision breeding and improve the efficiency of breeding programs.

Genetic Variation for Seed Oil Biosynthesis in Soybean

Soybean is an important oilseed crop which supplies both industrial processes and animal feed as well as having a number of food uses. The high yields of oil from soybean seed, along with large planting acreage, significant production infrastructure, and its capacity to fix nitrogen, make it the second most valuable crop in the USA and fourth in the world. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the genetics of fatty acid biosynthesis in plants, based on soybean and other species. We describe recent biotechnological approaches to improve or alter oil content and oil profile in soybean. We provide a list of the presently understood genetic variants, both natural and induced by mutagenesis, in the known soybean fatty acid biosynthesis genes, including four mutations not previously described. We discuss the implications of the increasing amount of genomic data available for composition improvement, using the known fatty acid biosynthesis genes as a case study, and describe potentially new oil gene mutants based on genome sequence data.

Effect of soybean oil content on textural, rheological, and microstructural properties of WBAXs-SPI emulsion-filled gels.

This study aimed to prepare wheat bran arabinoxylans-soy protein isolate (WBAXs-SPI) emulsion-filled gels with different oil contents and investigate their rheological, textural, water-holding capacity (WHC), and microstructural properties. The rheological analysis results showed that the maximum correlation interaction occurs when the soybean oil concentration was 10%, and the elastic modulus (G') reaches the highest value of 13,562 Pa. Interestingly, the WHC and texture change trend of WBAXs-SPI emulsion-filled gel were consistent with rheology. Meanwhile, confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) observation indicated that the emulsion-filled gels formed an interpenetrating polysaccharide-protein complex network system. Therefore, the filling emulsion performance could be adjusted by changing the concentration of oil droplets as the active filler. This provides the possibility of developing new food materials encapsulating fat-soluble substances with a low oil rate and more stable structure.

Association studies and QTL mapping for soybean oil content and composition

Soybean oil is one of the most important vegetable oils in world. Increasing oil content and improve its composition is an important aim of many soybean breeding programs. In this context, the objective of this study was to identify QTLs controlling oil and fatty acid contents in soybean seed in different locations. For this, we developed F2-derived populations by crossing CS303TNKCA and FA22 lines, and analyzed oil and fatty acid content in four locations in Brazil. We evaluated the correlations of traits in each location and between locations and used 1536 SNPs to molecular characterize this population. QTLs associated with the average values of four environments were identified by using simple interval mapping. A linkage map was generated using 534 SNP markers, and 25 linkage groups were formed. A total of 20 QTLs controlling oil, palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic contents were found, varying from one (linolenic content) to six (palmitic content), and explaining from 7.02% (qSte-13) to 70.37% (qLin-14) of phenotypic variation. We could not associate eight QTLs (qPal-02, qOle-02, qLol-02, qOle-04, qLol-04, qPal-13.2, qSte-15 and qSte-17) with reported QTLs and genes, so these could be set as new QTLs controlling fatty acid composition. The results found in the present work can help understand the genetic basis of these traits and help breeders to modify oil content and composition in soybean seed, especially in tropical conditions.

Combining GC-MS and chemometrics to assess the quality of camellia seed oils

ABSTRACT Chemometric tools and GC-MS were employed to detect the adulteration of camellia seed oil. In the training set, 65 samples were formulated by blending pure camellia seed oil with varying concentrations of soybean, peanut and rapeseed oil and their fatty acid contents were used in chemometric analysis. Principal Component analysis revealed the distribution patterns of samples that showed a clear stratiform agglomeration according to varying amount of camellia seed oil. Fisher Discriminant Analysis (FDA) was combined to establish the classification models and the correct classification rate of cross-validation model and original model reached 92.5% and 82.5%, respectively. To test the quality of the model, a new test set was prepared and the results showed a high accuracy of 88%. This was indicated that the developed discrimination model established by PCA plus FDA was efficient in predicting the presence of other low-price edible oils in camellia seed oils.

Effect of water deficit and sowing date on oil and protein contents in soybean co-inoculated with Azospirillum brasilense

ABSTRACT The soybean chemical composition is strongly influenced by genetic factors, as well as their interaction with the environment and management practices. Among the environmental factors, water deficit and temperature are those that most contribute to modify the chemical composition of beans, especially oil and protein contents. The present study aimed to assess the effects of co-inoculation with Azospirillum brasilense on soybean oil and protein contents. Two field experiments were carried out on different sowing dates. The design consisted of randomized blocks, in a split-split-plot arrangement, with four replications, including two irrigation depths (25 % and 100 % of the ETc), two inoculation methods [Bradyrhizobium japonicum (strains Semia 5079 and Semia 5080) and Azospirillum brasilense (strains AbV5 and AbV6 + Bradyrhizobium japonicum)] and two cultivars (ANTA 82 and TMG 132). The co-inoculation did not affect the oil and protein contents of beans for any of the assessed management conditions. The water deficit in the reproductive stage, combined with the sowing dates, altered the oil and protein contents in both the assessed cultivars, showing, respectively, a higher average protein and oil content in the beans for the cultivars TMG 132 and ANTA 82.

Environmental Effects on Soybean (Glycine Max (L.) Merr) Production in Central and South Germany

The cultivation area of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr) is increasing in Germany as a way to ensure self-sufficiency through its use as feed and food. However, climatic conditions needed for soybean cultivation are not appropriate in all parts of the country. The objective of this study was to determine the influence of solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation on soybean seed productivity and quality in central and south Germany. A multi-factorial field trial was carried out with three replicates at four locations in 2016 and five locations in 2017, testing 13 soybean varieties from the maturity groups MG 00 and MG 000. Considering all the tested factors, “variety” was highly significant concerning protein content (Ø 41.1% dry matter (DM)) and oil content (Ø 19.1% in DM), but not seed yield (Ø 40.5 dt ha−1).The broad sense heritability of protein content was H2 = 0.80 and of oil content H2 = 0.7. Protein and oil content were significantly negatively correlated (r = −0.82). Seed yield was significantly positively correlated with solar radiation (r = 0.32) and precipitation (r = 0.33), but significantly negatively with Crop Heat Units (CHU) (r = −0.42). Over both experimental years, varieties from maturity group MG 00 were less significantly correlated with the tested environmental factors than varieties from maturity group MG 000. None of the environmental factors tested significantly increased the protein or oil content of soybean. In growing areas with heat periods during ripening, protein content tended to be higher than in cooler areas; in areas with high solar radiation during flowering, protein content tended to be reduced.

Functional properties of dairy phospholipid gels

In this study dairy phospholipid (PL) gels were made using 3 different concentrations of PL (15%, 30%, and 45%) and soybean oil to determine the gel-forming ability and functional traits that dairy PL have. After 24 h of storage the visual stability, crystal morphology, solid fat content, melting behavior, viscosity, and oil binding capacity of the gels were evaluated. All samples showed visual stability, whereas polarized light microscopy showed that high concentrations of PL reduced PL mobility, preventing tubular micelles from forming at high concentrations of PL (45%). Solid fat content increased with an increase in PL concentration. The melting enthalpy increased as the concentration of PL increased. The viscosity was assessed at 0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 1/s shear rates. A significant difference was observed between the 45% PL samples and the other samples at low and intermediate shear, but at high shear levels, a significant difference was only seen between the 15% PL sample and the other samples. The oil binding capacity showed a significant difference between the 45% PL sample and the other 2 samples. This study shows that dairy PL can be added to a vegetable oil to produce semi-solid material with appropriate functional properties.

Screening of Amazonian bacillus strains for lipase production using glycerol as substrate

The industrial application of lipolytic enzymes has been studied mainly due to the ability of these enzymes in catalyze reactions of synthesis and their stability in various organic solvents. One possibility is the use of lipase the organic synthesis, taking advantage as the generation of waste and difficult recovery of sub bioproducts. In this work, we carried out a selection of eighty-four isolates of Bacillus amazonian for lipase production, of which 30 strains showed lipolytic activity. The study of the culture conditions was performed through a Plackett-Burman experimental design using the strain that presented the highest lipolytic activity in a culture medium using glycerol as substrate. The studied conditions were: concentration of soybean oil, olive oil, triton X-100, gum arabic, glycerol, and (NH4)2SO4, pH, temperature and concentration of inoculums. The best result obtained were 27 U/L in 48 h of cultivation by Bacillus circulans BL53. This work shows that the search and selection of microorganism with lipolytic activities can facilitate the discovery of new lipases, with potential use as by-product surplus.

Ecosystem service mapping in soybean agroecosystems

Depending on the type and intensity of use of agroecosystems, they provide important goods and ecosystem services (ES) to human. This study assesses supporting, regulating, provisioning and cultural services in 48 Iranian soybean fields under conventional and conservation cropping systems. We hypothesize that the present agricultural soybean land use in Gorgan County is the reason for a reduced performance of ES. We updated the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) framework for mapping of ES and included new indicators like insect biodiversity, biodiversity indexes according to Shannon-Wiener, Simpson, Inverse Simpson and Margalef, soil microbial respiration, and quantification of soil conservation by using the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). To quantify carbon sequestration and microbial respiration, soil samples were taken at depths of 0–30 cm before cultivation start in late May 2017 and after soybean harvest in early October 2017. Oxygen production was estimated based on net primary production. Various types of supporting services were evaluated in two general groups, including insect communities and plant biodiversity. The results show that conservation cropping systems in general provide better performing ES than conventional cropping systems. Soil microbial respiration was significantly higher in conservation fields. The average oxygen production on conventional fields was 79.9 ton per ha, compared to 59.9 ton per ha in conservation fields. The biodiversity assessment showed that species richness and all diversity indexes in conservation fields were higher than conventional agroecosystems. From a soil conservation point of view, the rates of soil erosion according to USLE were estimated at an average of 996.64 and 417.63 kg per ha under conventional and conservation fields, respectively. In a spatial distinction, the eastern part of the county exposes the highest soil erosion. Regulating services for carbon sequestration were high in the southern region and on fields close to forest ecosystems. Provisioning services of soybean yield, oil and protein contents were highest in the western and central parts and lowest in the northern part of the study area. As the first report of ecosystem services mapping in conservation and conventional cropping systems in Iran, we confirm that conservation cropping systems in general provide better performing ES than conventional cropping systems.

Antioxidant Properties of Avicennia marina Leaf Extract in Soybean Oil System

Background: Despite the widespread use of antioxidants during the storage of oils, oxidation of fats and fatty foods is still reported to be the main reason for their quality drop. Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) completely escape and easily decompose at high temperatures. There are serious problems in relation to the toxicity of BHA, BHT and tertiary butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), possibly due to their metabolism and accumulation in organs and tissues. So finding a useful natural antioxidant is of great importance, and due to the considerable presence of mangrove plant on the Southern Coasts of Iran, this study aims to investigate the antioxidant properties of Avicennia marina leaves. Objective: Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of the Avicennia marina leaf extract and its comparison with synthetic antioxidant TBHQ. Methods: By adding the ethanolic extracts of Avicennia marina leaves at different concentrations (2, 4 and 6 mg/mL) into soybean oil system at room temperature during 20 days and at different intervals, their peroxide (PV), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), conjugated dienes (CD) and conjugated trienes (CT), as well as fatty acid profile were measured. Antioxidant activity of the samples was compared with that of TBHQ sample. Data analysis was performed using SAS, and a comparison of average data was carried out using least significant difference (LSD) at a level of 0.01. Results: The antioxidant activity of 2 and 4 mg/mL concentrations of Avicennia marina leaf extract in soybean oil was comparable with that of 0.2 mg/mL concentration of synthetic TBHQ. As a result, this natural antioxidant can be used for the preservation of soybean oil. Conclusion: Due to the presence of phenols in the leaves, Avicennia marina leaf extract can be used as a rich source of natural antioxidants.

Quantification of vegetable oil in recycled paper

Vegetable soybean oil is commonly used in cooking foods that are packaged in takeaway paper-board containers. Vegetable oil is hydrophobic, and in sufficiently high concentration, could interfere with interfiber bonding and result in paper strength loss. In order to quantify the effect of oil on the resulting paperboard strength, it is necessary to quantify the oil content in paper. A lab method was evaluated to determine the soybean oil content in paper. Handsheets were made with pulps previously treated with different proportions of vegetable oil. Pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (pyGCMS) was used to quantify the amount of oil left in the handsheets. The results revealed a strong correlation between the amount of oil applied to the initial pulp and the amount of oil left in the handsheets. In addition, the effect of vegetable oils on paper strength may be affected by the cooking process. Vegetable oil is known to degrade over time in the presence of oxygen, light, and temperature. The vegetable oil was put in an oven to imitate the oil lifecycle during a typical pizza cooking process. The cooked oil was then left at room temperature and not protected from air (oxygen) or from normal daylight. The heated, then cooled, oil was stored over a period of 13 weeks. During this time, samples of the aged oil were tested as part of a time-based degradation study of the cooked and cooled oil.

Quantification and classification of vegetable oils in extra virgin olive oil samples using a portable near-infrared spectrometer associated with chemometrics

Olive oil is an important food product for human health. The addition of vegetable oils is the most common form of oil adulteration. In this paper, a methodology was developed to identify and quantify adulterations in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) using a portable near-infrared spectrometer (microNIR). Two different spectral acquisition modes were tested: reflectance and transmittance. Samples sets constitute binary blends of EVOO with soybean, sunflower, corn, and canola oil. Partial least squares regression (PLS) models were built to quantify adulterations in extra virgin olive oil. After, the soybean oil content was checked in 12 olive oils acquired in a local market. Also, the physicochemical properties: acidity, peroxide index, and ultraviolet absorbance of the commercial samples were determined following the standard method of Institute Adolfo Lutz and CEE n. 2568/91. The PLS models' accuracy was 0.5 to 1.8 wt% for transmittance mode and 1.7 to 4.6 wt% for reflectance mode. The commercial olive samples' adulterations, the binary blends of commercial samples, the vegetable oils, and the binary blends EVOO/vegetable oils were evaluated by principal component analysis (PCA) and soft independent modeling class analogy (SIMCA). PCA and SIMCA models distinguished the commercial samples according to the information contained in their labels; besides, it identified the olive oil samples on to dataset with the blends. These results are in excellent agreement with the physicochemical results that corroborate with the limits of regulation.

An evolutionary population structure model reveals pleiotropic effects of GmPDAT for traits related to seed size and oil content in soybean.

Seed oil traits in soybean that are of benefit to human nutrition and health have been selected for during crop domestication. However, these domesticated traits have significant differences across various evolutionary types. In this study, we found that the integration of evolutionary population structure (evolutionary types) with genome-wide association studies increased the power of gene detection, and it identified one locus for traits related to seed size and oil content on chromosome 13. This domestication locus, together with another one in a 200-kb region, was confirmed by the GEMMA and EMMAX software. The candidate gene, GmPDAT, had higher expressional levels in high-oil and large-seed accessions than in low-oil and small-seed accessions. Overexpression lines had increased seed size and oil content, whereas RNAi lines had decreased seed size and oil content. The molecular mechanism of GmPDAT was deduced based on results from linkage analysis for triacylglycerols and on histocytological comparisons of transgenic soybean seeds. Our results illustrate a new approach for identifying domestication genes with pleiotropic effects.

Detection of QTL and QTN and candidate genes for oil content in soybean using a combination of four-way-RIL and germplasm populations

Soybean is a source of edible oil for humans and provides a third of the vegetable oil consumed worldwide. Increasing seed oil content in seeds is thus a key objective in soybean breeding. In the present study, a four-way recombinant inbred line (FW-RIL) population comprising 144 lines, planted in 10 environments, and a germplasm panel of 455 accessions, planted in two environments, were used to collect oil-content phenotypes. First, 59 quantitative trait loci (QTL) were detected in the FW-RIL population by inclusive complete interval mapping on a linkage map consisting of 2232 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Also in the FW-RILs, 44 quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) were detected by association analysis using 109,676 SNP markers and five methods of multi-locus genome-wide association study. Second, 77 QTN were detected by association analysis in the germplasm panel using 63,306 markers. Comparison of the QTL and QTN suggested four QTN controlling oil content. Pathway analysis was performed on genes in attenuation regions of these four QTN, and two candidate genes involved in the synthesis or metabolism of soybean oil were identified. These findings provide useful information about the genetics of oil content and may contribute to its genetic improvement by marker-assisted selection.

Identification of seed protein and oil related QTL in 944 RILs from a diallel of early-maturing European soybean

Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is a global protein source and is currently expanding in Central and Northern Europe. Protein and oil content are two important quality traits that have been studied in different germplasm, however, their genetic architecture in early-maturing European soybean has not been investigated yet. In this study, we therefore performed QTL mapping for both traits using 944 recombinant inbred lines derived from eight families from a half-diallel crossing design. We identified five QTL for each trait, with the QTL on chromosomes 8, 15, and 20 being identified for both protein content and oil content. The known major QTL on chromosome 20 was detected in four families whereas the other QTL were only found in single families. Further analyses revealed the QTL to have pleiotropic but inverse effects on both traits. The effect of the major QTL was comparable between families, illustrating that it is largely independent from the genetic background. Collectively, our results illustrate the quantitative nature of protein and oil content in early European soybean. Marker-assisted selection for the QTL is possible, but the inverse effect on protein and oil content should be kept in mind.

Seed Yield, Seed Protein, Oil Content, and Agronomic Characteristics of Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) Depending on Different Seeding Systems and Cultivars in Germany

Soybean (Glycine max L. Merrill) is one of the most important crops worldwide. In several European countries such as Germany, soybean cultivation is not traditional and as such remains to be optimized. One option to increase soybean production is to adapt and improve the seeding system. To investigate the effects of different seeding systems on seed yield, seed protein, and oil content, plant characteristics were assessed using a two-factorial (two seeding systems and four cultivars) field trial over two years (2017–2018) at two locations in southeast Germany. The seeding systems were drill (row spacing 14 cm) and precision seeding (row spacing 28 cm), and the cultivars were Viola 000, Lissabon 000, ES Mentor 00, and Orion 00. Depending on the seeding system, a seed yield of 3.8 t ha−1 dry matter (DM), 40.9% protein content (DM), and 18.8% oil content (DM) was achieved by drilling, and 3.6 t ha−1 yield (DM), 40.1% protein content (DM), and 19.1% oil content (DM) with precision seeding (average across four cultivars, two locations, and two years). No significant effects of the seeding system on all seed and plant characteristics were observed. As drilling and precision seeding did not affect the seed yield, seed protein, oil contents, and plant characteristics of soybean in this study, farmers are able to choose the seeding system which fits best into their farms and is economically most viable.

Physical, mechanical and transport properties of emulsified films based on alginate with soybean oil: Effects of soybean oil concentration, number of passes and degree of surface crosslinking

Edible films and coatings have been applied on fruits to improve their quality during growth and development as well as during postharvest storage. A response surface methodology was used to determine the effects of oil concentration, number of passes and calcium chloride concentration on the physical, mechanical and transport properties of oil-alginate composite films. Alginate-based films were developed using alginate (1.0% w/v), soybean oil (0.5%, 1.0% and 1.5% v/v) and Tween 80® (1% v/v). Coarse emulsions were passed 2, 4 and 6 times through a microfluidizer at 200 MPa. Calcium chloride solutions (0%, 1.5% and 3%) were then applied on the cast films to crosslink them. The oil particle sizes ranged from 360 to 445 nm, regardless of the emulsion composition and number of passes. The lowest water permeability value (1.8857E-10 g/msPa) was obtained for 1.5% oil concentration, 6 passes and no crosslinking. The porosity of the films at low oil concentrations increased with an increase in crosslinking level. In comparison, the porosity of the films at high oil concentrations decreased with an increase in crosslinking level. Emulsified films showed reduced strength and increased elongation with an increase in oil concentration. Films treated with calcium chloride showed lower strength due to greater effects from oil than calcium chloride. In conclusion, oil incorporation in films was the predominant factor in improved film properties, especially for water vapor permeability.

Identification and Mapping of Stable QTLs for Seed Oil and Protein Content in Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.

This research aimed to identify stable quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with oil and protein content in soybean. A population of 196 recombinant inbred lines (RILs) derived from Huachun 2 × Wayao was used to evaluate these target traits. A high-density genetic linkage map was constructed by using high-throughput genome-wide sequencing technology, which contained 3413 recombination bin markers and spanned 5400.4 cM with an average distance of 1.58 cM between markers. Eighteen stable QTLs controlling oil and protein content were detected. Among them, qOil-11-1 was identified for the first time as a novel QTL, while qOil-5-1, qPro-10-1, and qPro-14-1 were strong and stable QTLs with high log-likelihood (LOD) values. Sixteen differentially expressed genes (DEGs) within these four QTLs were shown to be highly expressed during seed development based on RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data analysis. Our results may contribute toward gene mining and marker-assisted selection (MAS) for breeding a high-quality soybean in the future.