Ohio Environmental Protection Agency Research Articles

Can biological assessments discriminate among types of stress? A case study from the Eastern Corn Belt Plains ecoregion

AbstractWe investigated the feasibility of using the structure of fish and benthic macroinvertebrate communities to distinguish among major types of stressors (e.g., siltation, nutrient enrichment, and stream structural degradation) using spatially and temporally matched data on stressors and responses. The 19 stressor variables addressed stream chemistry and in‐stream habitat and included biological oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids, nitrogen, phosphorus, and components of the Qualitative Habitat Evaluation Index. The 42 response variables addressed fish and invertebrate community structure and included many of the component metrics of the Index of Biological Integrity and the Invertebrate Community Index as well as variables specifically calculated for this project. All data were collected between 1988 and 1994 by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency in the Eastern Corn Belt Plains ecoregion. Prior to analysis, variables were transformed to near normality, and variables significantly correlated with drainage area were fit to regression models and the resulting residuals used in the analyses. Multivariate analyses included factor and discriminant analysis. The first six stressor factors explained 69% of the variation. Discriminant functions formed using the response variables significantly separated site clusters classified into high, medium, and low categories along stressor gradients. Both fish and macroinvertebrate variables were important in distinguishing site categories. For example, percentage Tanytarsini midges and percentage Glyptotendipes were important in distinguishing sites having high and low BOD. Percentage darters was associated with sites having high scores for stream corridor structure and low concentrations of inorganic nutrients, and percentage round‐bodied suckers was associated with sites having low BOD and low concentrations of zinc and lead. These results indicate that diagnostic models may be developed that will be useful for site‐specific and regional assessments.

Bottom‐up and top‐down approaches to assess multiple stressors over large geographic areas

AbstractThe relationship of multiple factors, such as instream habitat, drainage area, gradient, cumulative effluent, conventional pollutants, and chemical mixtures, to fish communities was explored at the subbasin, basin, and state level within the state of Ohio, USA. Two approaches were used: bottom‐up, which focused on subbasin‐ and basin‐level relationships within the Great Miami River, Ohio, and top‐down, focusing on relationships across the entire state. Data were provided by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. These data were integrated via a geographical information system. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the strength of stressor–response relationships. The greatest amount of variation of the index of biotic integrity (IBI) and selected metrics was addressed at the subbasin level, followed by the basin and state level, respectively. Overall, habitat factors were the best predictors and positively related to the IBI and number of fish species. Chemical factors, such as cumulative effluent, metals, ammonia, and biochemical oxygen demand, were consistently observed as negative, moderating factors for IBI and fish taxa richness and were the best predictors of the percent of fish observed with deformities, fin erosions, lesions, and tumors.

Proximity‐based measure of land use impacts to aquatic ecosystem integrity

AbstractA proximity‐based measure of land‐use impacts to aquatic ecosystem integrity based on both the relative abundance and spatial distribution of land uses within a watershed is developed and evaluated. This hydrologic proximity measure assumes that the impact of the land use at a specific position in the watershed upstream from a sample site is related to the relative volume of water that would be expected to flow through that position during a storm event. In order to evaluate the utility of this measure, the fit of several models based on land use and habitat assessment measures to biological integrity data is compared to the fit of a similar model based on hydrologic proximity measures. This hydrologic proximity model explained more of the variability in observed Hilsenhoff biotic index scores (R2 = 0.92) than land use impacts estimated as the watershed surface area occupied by each land use (R2 = 0.83), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency habitat assessment methods (R2 = 0.68), or Ohio Environmental Protection Agency habitat assessment methods (R2 = 0.68). Additionally, an algorithm based on the hydrologic proximity measure is presented for optimizing land use conversion projects to enhance biological integrity.

Fluoride and bacterial content of bottled water vs tap water.

Bottled water has become a status symbol and is frequently used in place of tap water. While both waters are considered safe to drink, is either more beneficial in preventing tooth decay and is there a difference in purity? To determine the fluoride level and bacterial content of commercially bottled waters municipal tap water and to compare the results. Comparative study. Cleveland, Ohio. Fifty-seven samples of 5 categories of bottled waters were purchased from local stores. Samples of tap water were collected in sterile containers from the 4 local water processing plants. Fluoride levels were determined by an ion-selective electrode method. Water was cultured quantitatively and levels of bacteria were calculated as colony-forming units (CFUs) per milliliter. Fluoride levels and bacterial counts. Fluoride levels within the range recommended for drinking water by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, 0.80 to 1.30 mg/L, were found in only 3 samples of bottled water tested. The fluoride levels of tap water samples were within 0.04 mg/L of the optimal fluoride level of 1.00 mg/L. The bacterial counts in the bottled water samples ranged from less than 0.01 CFU/mL to 4900 CFUs/mL, including 6 samples with levels substantially above 1000 CFUs/mL. In contrast, bacterial counts in samples of tap water ranged from 0.2 to 2.7 CFUs/mL. Five percent of the bottled water purchased in Cleveland fell within the required fluoride range recommended by the state, compared with 100% of the tap water samples, all of which were also within 0.04 mg/L of the optimal fluoride level of 1.00 mg/L. Use of bottled water based on the assumption of purity can be misguided. Recently, the Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, published a final ruling that requires community water systems to regularly report to the public on the quality of local tap water; there are no similar proposals to determine the quality of bottled water through labeling.

Determination of the sensitivity of macroinvertebrates in stream mesocosms through field‐derived assessments

AbstractThe extrapolation of no observed effect concentrations derived from experimental ecosystem tests (mesocosms) to the field assumes low assessment factors, i.e., the test system is sensitive and serves as a good surrogate for the field. We tested this assumption by comparing the responses of dominant invertebrate taxa exposed to municipal effluent in Procter&Gamble's experimental stream facility (ESF) to those of the same taxa found in routine field samples collected by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency (1,112 sites). The index of community sensitivity was used as the basis for comparison of mesocosm responses to field‐collection data. Control ESF responses corresponded to the 75th and 80th percentiles, whereas most effluent responses corresponded to between the 22nd and 30th percentiles. These analyses support the use of a low assessment factor for the ESF.

Using negotiated guidelines in a facility upgrade

In Ohio, approval criteria for high‐rate processes are used to design a treatment plant upgrade that secures the required state approval.In Ohio, the use of high‐rate treatment processes requires prior approval from the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. Approval criteria for high‐rate processes were developed and used for the first time in a study commissioned by the Cleveland Division of Water. The study developed data that aided in the design of an expansion project for the Crown Water Treatment Plant. Data from a pilot‐scale study, which examined the efficiency of high‐rate clarification and high‐rate filtration, confirmed that tube settlers and filters with 1,830 mm (72 in.) of 1‐mm effective size anthracite were appropriate for the plant's expansion and upgrade.

Political Bias Obscured Assessment

As a water treatment professional with an Ohio Class III Water license, joint certification from the Ohio Department of Health Laboratory and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency to perform various chemical and microbiological analyses, and 19 years of practical experience, the author takes issue with the tone and content of Velma Smith's Viewpoint in the January issue. The author discusses his objections to Smith's depictions of potable water treatment issues.

Exploratory Analysis of Population Genetic Assessment as a Water Quality Indicator: I. Pimephales notatus

Biological sampling has been implemented to assess water quality in many states. The purpose of this study was to examine whether genetic diversity and structure of Pimephales notatus could serve as effective biomarkers of exposure to anthropogenic stressors by comparing genetic measures with other biological indicators of water quality. Fish were collected from 15 sites on eight streams by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency as part of their stream water quality evaluation program. Values for the Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) and the Invertebrate Community Index (ICI) were determined for these 15 sites. Starch gel electrophoresis was used to collect genetic data for seven variable enzyme loci. Genetic diversity measures were not associated with site IBI or ICI values. However, the range of site IBI and ICI values was limited. The proportion of individuals not expressing esterase locus 3 could be used to predict IBI; IBI decreased as the proportion of nonexpression increased. Allele and genotype frequency differences were observed between sites on the Little Scioto River, the one stream with a large difference in IBI and ICI values between sites. This study suggested that allele and genotype frequencies may have been impacted without affecting overall species diversity.

Exploratory Analysis of Population Genetic Assessment as a Water Quality Indicator: II. Campostoma anomalum

Biological monitoring programs to assess contaminant-induced impacts in aquatic systems are being developed and implemented by several federal agencies and many states. Genetic diversity and allozyme frequency may be valuable indicators of such impact because they are both sensitive to exposure and ecologically relevant in populations. The purpose of this study was to examine whether genetic diversity and structure of Campostoma anomalum populations could serve as effective biomarkers of exposure to anthropogenic stress by comparing genetic measures with other biological indicators of water quality. Fish were collected from 14 sites on seven streams by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency as part of their stream water quality evaluation program. Values for the Index of Biological Integrity (IBI) and the Invertebrate Community Index (ICI) were determined for these 14 sites. Starch gel electrophoresis was used to collect genetic data for eight variable enzyme loci. Genetic diversity measures were not associated with site IBI or ICI values. However, the range of site IBI and ICI values was limited. Allele and genotype frequencies were significantly different at the point source compared to sites upstream and downstream indicating that genetic structure may be an indicator of water quality that is sensitive enough to detect change prior to species loss.

Complying with the SWTR: Ohio's experience

Rather than conducting tracer studies, most plant operators elected to use a conservative estimate of effective contact time generated by the state.The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) stipulates filtration and disinfection requirements for public water systems using surface water or groundwater under the direct influence of surface water. In Ohio, 169 treatment plants serving 5,000,000 people are affected by the SWTR. The authors surveyed these plants to determine how the SWTR's C X T requirements have affected system operation. Existing plants use a wide variety of clearwell configurations. Although tracer studies provide the most reliable estimates of clearwell contact time, few of these systems actually ran tracer tests; instead most accepted a conservative estimate of effective contact time developed by the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency to roughly estimate effective contact time. Determining contact times in the absence of a tracer study presents a unique challenge to enforcement agencies because of the variety of chlorine contact chambers encountered in practice. Under a conservative worst‐case operating scenario, more than half of Ohio's SWTR treatment plants were judged unable to comply with C X T requirements.

Linking environmental and health care databases: Assessing the health effects of environmental pollutants

The assessment of pollutant effects on health status requires the mergence and analysis of two different databases: pollution measurements and health care information. This paper compares two subsets of these data: Ohio Environmental Protection Agency data on ambient air pollutants and Ohio Medicare data on respiratory diseases. Small area analysis was performed to assess statewide variations in hospital admission rates for respiratory diseases. The ambient air pollutant levels for each small area were compared to the variations in respiratory disease rates. Five groups of diseases correlated with pollutant levels. In addition, pollutant levels were significantly associated with medical complications. This study demonstrates the feasibility and benefit of linking environmental and health care databases and suggests the need for a more comprehensive, automated analysis of more pollutants and diseases.

Comparative evolution of statewide Geographic Information Systems in Ohio

Abstract This paper describes four autonomous Geographic Information Systems operating at a statewide level in Ohio (USA). All were initiated at various times in the 1970s and 1980s. They are operated by branches of state government, namely the Department of Natural Resources, the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, the Ohio Department of Transportation, and the Public Utilities Commission of Ohio. A critical review of the operations and institutional contexts of these four systems shows evolution from in-house software development to third party suppliers, from coarse resolution grid cells to high accuracy vector data, from large dedicated GIS staffs to application-specific users augmented by smaller GIS support staffs, and from agency-dependent databases to inter-agency database sharing as technology improves and user needs and databases increase.

Response and cleanup efforts associated with the white phosphorus release, Miamisburg, Ohio

On July 8, 1986, local, state, and Federal personnel responded to a train derailment and subsequent fire of a tanker car containing white phosphorus in Miamisburg, Ohio. For a period of 5 days, fire departments from Miamisburg and up to 14 nearby communities fought the fire, which was caused by the gradual release of 12,000 gallons of air-reactive white phosphorus. During this period, approximately 30,000 area residents were evacuated and 166 people were treated at local hospitals. Response support was provided by numerous agencies/governmental units, including: the city of Miamisburg; the Dayton Area Hazardous Materials Team; fire departments in Montgomery County; The Miami Valley Disaster Services Authority; the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; the Roy F. Weston Technical Assistance Team; the U.S. Department of Transportation; and the American Railroad Association. Initial support was focused on protecting the public health and welfare and on maximizing containment of the released materials. Subsequent to extinguishing the fire, large-scale cleanup operations commenced that included the treatment of contaminated water, soil, and river sediments. This paper summarizes these efforts and discusses the activities taken by the major agencies involved in the rapid response to the incident in Miamisburg, Ohio.

Separation of metals in wastewater sludge by centrifugal classification. Data for centrifugal classification can be suitably correlated by an easily correlated recovery factor, which can be calculated from a single replicated data point

Environmental ProgressVolume 4, Issue 4 p. 269-276 Article Separation of metals in wastewater sludge by centrifugal classification. Data for centrifugal classification can be suitably correlated by an easily correlated recovery factor, which can be calculated from a single replicated data point Carol Ann Fronk, Carol Ann Fronk U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Carol Ann Fronk is presently a Research Chemical Engineer with the Drinking Water Research Division of the Environmental Protection Agency. She was a Research Engineer with the Wastewater Research Division when this work was completed. She holds a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Cincinnati. She has served as Chairperson of the Ohio Valley Section of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also a member of Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda Upsilon.Search for more papers by this authorJoseph B. Farrell, Joseph B. Farrell U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Joseph B. Farrell is currently Group Chief, Ultimate Disposal Section, Wastewater Research Division, in EPA's Water Engineering Research Laboratory in Cincinnati. He has had a varied experience in industry and teaching and has been with EPA and its predecessor agencies for seventeen years. He received all his degrees in chemical engineering; the B.S. from the University of Notre Dame, M.S. from M.I.T., and Ph.D. from Cornell University.Search for more papers by this authorWilliam Strachan, William Strachan U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 William M. Strachan is with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management serving as the Agency's On-Site Inspector at the CECOS International Secure Chemical Management Facility outside of Cincinnati, Ohio. He holds a B.S. in Civil Engineering and an M.S. in Environmental Engineering both from the University of Cincinnati. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.Search for more papers by this author Carol Ann Fronk, Carol Ann Fronk U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Carol Ann Fronk is presently a Research Chemical Engineer with the Drinking Water Research Division of the Environmental Protection Agency. She was a Research Engineer with the Wastewater Research Division when this work was completed. She holds a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Cincinnati. She has served as Chairperson of the Ohio Valley Section of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also a member of Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda Upsilon.Search for more papers by this authorJoseph B. Farrell, Joseph B. Farrell U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Joseph B. Farrell is currently Group Chief, Ultimate Disposal Section, Wastewater Research Division, in EPA's Water Engineering Research Laboratory in Cincinnati. He has had a varied experience in industry and teaching and has been with EPA and its predecessor agencies for seventeen years. He received all his degrees in chemical engineering; the B.S. from the University of Notre Dame, M.S. from M.I.T., and Ph.D. from Cornell University.Search for more papers by this authorWilliam Strachan, William Strachan U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 William M. Strachan is with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management serving as the Agency's On-Site Inspector at the CECOS International Secure Chemical Management Facility outside of Cincinnati, Ohio. He holds a B.S. in Civil Engineering and an M.S. in Environmental Engineering both from the University of Cincinnati. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.Search for more papers by this author First published: November 1985 https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.670040413 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume4, Issue4November 1985Pages 269-276 RelatedInformation

Separation of metals in wastewater sludge by centrifugal classification

Environmental ProgressVolume 4, Issue 4 p. 269-276 Article Separation of metals in wastewater sludge by centrifugal classification Carol Ann Fronk, Carol Ann Fronk U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Carol Ann Fronk: is presently a Research Chemical Engineer with the Drinking Water Research Division of the Environmental Protection Agency. She was a Research Engineer with the Wastewater Research Division when this work was completed. She holds a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Cincinnati. She has served as Chairperson of the Ohio Valley Section of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also a member of Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda Upsilon.Search for more papers by this authorJoseph B. Farrell, Joseph B. Farrell U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Joseph B. Farrell: is currently Group Chief, Ultimate Disposal Section, Wastewater Research Division, in EPA's Water Engineering Research Laboratory in Cincinnati. He has had a varied experience in industry and teaching and has been with EPA and its predecessor agencies for seventeen years. He received all his degrees in chemical engineering; the B.S. from the University of Notre Dame, M.S. from M.I.T., and Ph.D. from Cornell University.Search for more papers by this authorWilliam Strachan, William Strachan U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 William M. Strachan: is with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management serving as the Agency's On-Site Inspector at the CECOS International Secure Chemical Management Facility outside of Cincinnati, Ohio. He holds a B.S. in Civil Engineering and an M.S. in Environmental Engineering both from the University of Cincinnati. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.Search for more papers by this author Carol Ann Fronk, Carol Ann Fronk U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Carol Ann Fronk: is presently a Research Chemical Engineer with the Drinking Water Research Division of the Environmental Protection Agency. She was a Research Engineer with the Wastewater Research Division when this work was completed. She holds a B.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Cincinnati. She has served as Chairperson of the Ohio Valley Section of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also a member of Sigma Xi and Phi Lambda Upsilon.Search for more papers by this authorJoseph B. Farrell, Joseph B. Farrell U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 Joseph B. Farrell: is currently Group Chief, Ultimate Disposal Section, Wastewater Research Division, in EPA's Water Engineering Research Laboratory in Cincinnati. He has had a varied experience in industry and teaching and has been with EPA and its predecessor agencies for seventeen years. He received all his degrees in chemical engineering; the B.S. from the University of Notre Dame, M.S. from M.I.T., and Ph.D. from Cornell University.Search for more papers by this authorWilliam Strachan, William Strachan U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 William M. Strachan: is with the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Management serving as the Agency's On-Site Inspector at the CECOS International Secure Chemical Management Facility outside of Cincinnati, Ohio. He holds a B.S. in Civil Engineering and an M.S. in Environmental Engineering both from the University of Cincinnati. He is a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers.Search for more papers by this author First published: November 1985 https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.670040411 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat Volume4, Issue4November 1985Pages 269-276 RelatedInformation

Kovacs and Toxic Wastes in Bankruptcy

During the 1970's, William Lee Kovacs operated Chem-Dyne Corporation, an industrial and hazardous waste disposal business in Hamilton, Ohio. In 1976, Ohio's Environmental Protection Agency and Department of Natural Resources charged Kovacs and ChemDyne with polluting Ohio waters with pesticides and industrial wastes. In 1979, a state court enjoined Kovacs from causing further pollution and also required him to remove all industrial wastes from the premises of Chem-Dyne within twelve months. Kovacs did not comply with the injunction and continued to dump wastes on the site.' In 1980, Kovacs filed a bankruptcy petition. The Sixth Circuit subsequently held that Kovacs' obligation to clean up the toxic wastes gave rise to a claim within the meaning of the Bankruptcy Code and could be discharged.2 The Supreme Court granted certiorari, and will decide the case during the October 1984 Term. A number of businesses that have violated state and federal anti-

Natural and Man-induced Variability in a Silverjaw Minnow (Ericymba buccata) Population

During 8 years of fish sampling in an agricultural watershed, density of the silverjaw minnow Ericymba buccata fluctuated widely with a population outbreak in 1976 followed by a rapid decline. Accompanying these fluctuations were changes in population structure that were linked to differential mortality and variation in recruitment. Factors responsible for the demise of this species in the watershed included: severe droughts during 1976 and 1978; consecutive harsh winters in 1976-1977, 1977-1978 and 1978-1979; fish kills; and modified habitat conditions brought about by stream alterations. INTRODUCTION Fish populations in freshwater streams vary in space and time due to a variety of factors in and man-altered environments. Because of the complexity of factors responsible for this variation, it is difficult to interpret the results of programs designed to minimize negative effects of man's activities on biological integrity of water resources, particularly when only 1 or 2 years of data are collected. This report examines population variation of silverjaw minnow (Ericymba buccata) over 8 years in an agricultural watershed in northeastern Indiana. The study area was the target of intensive application of soil conservation practices designed to reduce soil erosion and thereby improve water quality (Morrison, 1977). Thus it was possible to evaluate the population dynamics of Ericymba in light of natural environmental variability and human-induced perturbations in the watershed. Ericymba buccata is a common inhabitant of small headwater streams in the Midwest, where it lives and feeds in schools on or near the bottom (Trautman, 1957; Hoyt, 1970; Pflieger, 1975; Wallace, 1976; Smith, 1978). It is most abundant in areas with sandy substrates and occurs in low densities over silt (Wallace 1972). In Indiana, spawning takes place from late April through July (Wallace 1973a). METHODS The study was conducted in conjunction with an interdisciplinary demonstration project (Black Creek Project) carried out on 48.5 km2 watershed in Allen Co., Indiana. The primary objective of the project was to develop and implement plans for controlling soil erosion and to evaluate effectiveness of traditional conservation methods in improving water resources. This included analysis of the shortand long-term effects of project activities on the fish fauna. Twenty-five fish sampling stations were established in the Black Creek watershed (Fig. 1), but most of the sampling effort was focused upon the main channel (particularly stations 6, 18, 17, 28, 29, 15 and 12). Samples generally covered 100 m at each station and were taken using 3.1 or 6.3 mm mesh minnow seines with block nets at the upper and lower ends of the station. Seines were 5-8 m long. Sampling frequency was not uniform throughout the study period but is believed to accurately reflect general population trends among adult (> 1 year) Ericymba. Initial I Department of Ecology, Ethology, and Evolution, 606 E. Healey, University of Illinois, Champaign 61820. 2 Division of Surveillance, Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 361 E. Broad, Columbus, Ohio 43215. 3 Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence 66045. 4 Address reprint requests to J.R. Karr.