Offspring Education Research Articles

Intergenerational education mobility and depressive symptoms in a population of Mexican origin

PurposeLow educational attainment has been associated with depression among Latinos. However, few studies have collected intergenerational data to assess mental health effects of educational mobility across generations. MethodsUsing data from the Niños Lifestyle and Diabetes Study, we assessed the influence of intergenerational education on depressive symptoms among 603 Mexican-origin individuals. Intergenerational educational mobility was classified: stable-low (low parent and/or low offspring education), upwardly mobile (low parent and/or high offspring education), stable-high (high parent and/or high offspring education), or downwardly mobile (high parent and/or low offspring education). High depressive symptoms were defined as scoring ≥10 on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-10 (CESD-10). We examined prevalence ratios (PRs) for depressive symptoms with levels of educational mobility. We used general estimating equations with log-binomial models to account for within-family clustering, adjusting for age, gender, and offspring and parent nativity. ResultsCompared with stable-low participants, the lowest prevalence of CESD-10 score ≥10 occurred in upwardly mobile (PR = 0.55; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.39–0.78) and stable-high (PR = 0.62; 95% CI = 0.44–0.87) participants. Downwardly mobile participants were also less likely to have a CESD-10 score ≥10 compared with stable-low participants (PR = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.38–1.11), although the estimate was not statistically significant. ConclusionsSustained stress from low intergenerational education may adversely affect depression. Latinos with stable-low or downwardly mobile intergenerational educational attainment may need closer monitoring for depressive symptoms.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offpsring's psychiatric morbidity in early adulthood. Findings from the Finnish Family Competence Birth Cohort Study

IntroductionPrenatal smoking exposure is one of the most common insults during the fetal period prevalence varying from 5 to 19% in the European countries [1].ObjectivesPrenatal smoking exposure increases the risk of psychiatric morbidity in the offspring, externalizing disorders in particular. However, less is known whether maternal smoking during pregnancy increases the risk for anxiety disorders [1].AimsTo study the associations between maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring psychiatric morbidity in early adulthood in a Finnish birth cohort study.MethodsA prospective data collection from 10th gestational week (GW10) to early adulthood (n = 475, 37% from the original sample). Information on self-reported smoking during pregnancy was collected using questionnaires at GW10 and GW28. Offspring psychiatric diagnoses and clinically relevant symptoms were assessed using Development and Well-being Assessment (DAWBA)-interviews at age 18 to 20 years. Information on parental alcohol use, depressive mood, anxiety, and education level, as well as offspring's gender, education level, and birth weight were used as covariates.ResultsMaternal smoking during pregnancy associated independently associated with PTSD (OR = 6.9, 95% CI 1.3–35.6, P = 0.021), and conduct disorder (OR = 2.7, 95% CI 1.02–6.9, P = 0.046) in a multivariate analysis after adjusting for other psychiatric diagnoses, offspring and parental variables (OR = 1.9, 95% CI 0.5–6.9, P = 0.359).ConclusionsIn addition to conduct problems, prenatal nicotine exposure may increase the offspring's risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This relationship may be explained, in part, by effects on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and uteroplacental mechanisms [1].Disclosure of interestThe authors have not supplied their declaration of competing interest.

Parental Identity and Its Relation to Parenting and Psychological Functioning in Middle Age

SYNOPSISObjective. This article focuses on identity as a parent in relation to parenting and psychological functioning in middle age. Design. Drawn from the Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development, 162 participants (53% females) with children (age 36), represented the Finnish age-cohort born in 1959. Parental identity was assessed at ages 36, 42, and 50. Results. In both women and men, parental identity achievement increased from age 36 to 42 and remained stable to 50. The level of parental identity achievement was higher in women than in men. Achievement was typical for women and foreclosure for men. Participants’ education, occupational status, and number of offspring were not related to parental identity status. As expected, parental identity achievement was associated with authoritative (indicated by higher nurturance and parental knowledge about the child’s activities) parenting style. No significant associations emerged between parental identity foreclosure and restrictiveness as an indicator of authoritarian parenting style. The diffused men outscored others in parental stress. Achieved parental identity was related to generativity in both genders and to higher psychological and social well-being in men. Conclusions. At present, many parenting programs are targeted to young parents. This study highlighted the importance of a later parenting phase at around age 40, when for many, the children are approaching puberty. Therefore, parenting programs and support should also be designed for middle-aged parents. Specifically men may need additional support for their active consideration and engagement in the fathering role.© Päivi Fadjukoff, Lea Pulkkinen, Anna-Liisa Lyyra, and Katja KokkoThis is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivatives License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.

Effects of Individual, Spousal, and Offspring Socioeconomic Status on Mortality Among Elderly People in China.

BackgroundThe relationship between socio-economic status and health among elderly people has been well studied, but less is known about how spousal or offspring’s education affects mortality, especially in non-Western countries. We investigated these associations using a large sample of Chinese elderly.MethodsThe data came from the Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey (CLHLS) from the years 2005 to 2011 (n = 15 355, aged 65–105 years at baseline; 5046 died in 2008, and 2224 died in 2011). Educational attainment, occupational status, and household income per capita were used as indicators of socio-economic status. Spousal and offspring’s education were added into the final models. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to study mortality risk by gender.ResultsAdjusted for age, highly educated males and females had, on average, 29% and 37% lower mortality risk, respectively, than those with a lower education. Particularly among men, this effect was observed among those whose children had intermediate education only. A higher household income was also associated with lower mortality risk among the elderly. Male elderly living with a well-educated spouse (HR 0.79; 95% CI, 0.64–0.99) had a lower mortality risk than those living with a low-educated spouse.ConclusionsBoth the socio-economic status of the individual and the educational level of a co-resident spouse or child are associated with mortality risk in elderly people. The socio-economic position of family members plays an important role in producing health inequality among elderly people.

Household Asset Allocation, Offspring Education, and the Sandwich Generation

This paper finds households with children and elderly dependents, the “Sandwich Generation,” significantly reduce both college savings and stockholding. Having any elderly dependents decreases the probability of both stockholding and college savings by twice as much as poor personal health. Hence, these results have critical implications as they demonstrate the importance and magnitude of links between the pension system, college financial aid, and wealth accumulation. Elderly dependents limiting parental funds for offspring education can decrease offspring long-term earnings potential via decreased human capital accumulation. Furthermore, decreased stock holdings can decrease long-term wealth accumulation and thus intergenerational wealth transfers.

Is the Effect of Parental Education on Offspring Biased or Moderated by Genotype?

Parental education is the strongest measured predictor of offspring education, and thus many scholars see the parent–child correlation in educational attainment as an important measure of social mobility. But if social changes or policy interventions are going to have dynastic effects, we need to know what accounts for this intergenerational association, that is, whether it is primarily environmental or genetic in origin. Thus, to understand whether the estimated social influence of parental education on offspring education is biased owing to genetic inheritance (or moderated by it), we exploit the findings from a recent large genome-wide association study of educational attainment to construct a genetic score designed to predict educational attainment. Using data from two independent samples, we find that our genetic score significantly predicts years of schooling in both between-family and within-family analyses. We report three findings that should be of interest to scholars in the stratification and education fields. First, raw parent–child correlations in education may reflect one-sixth genetic transmission and five-sixths social inheritance. Second, conditional on a child’s genetic score, a parental genetic score has no statistically significant relationship to the child’s educational attainment. Third, the effects of offspring genotype do not seem to be moderated by measured sociodemographic variables at the parental level (but parent–child genetic interaction effects are significant). These results are consistent with the existence of two separate systems of ascription: genetic inheritance (a random lottery within families) and social inheritance (across-family ascription). We caution, however, that at the presently attainable levels of explanatory power, these results are preliminary and may change when better-powered genetic risk scores are developed.

Parent-offspring association of metabolic syndrome in the Framingham Heart Study.

BackgroundMetabolic syndrome (MetS) is a clustering of five metabolic risk factors including abdominal obesity, elevated blood pressure, hypertriglyceridemia, low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and impaired fasting glucose. Few studies have fully reported the strength of clustering of these risk factors in a parent-offspring relationship. This analysis describes the associations between parents and their adult offspring in regard to MetS. It also estimates the association between each risk factor in parents and the presence of MetS in their offspring.MethodsWe analyzed data for 1193 offspring (565 sons, and 628 daughters) from the Framingham Offspring Study who attended examinations 5, 6, and 7. Information about their parents was collected from examinations 13, 14 and 15 of the Framingham Original Cohort study. We used pedigree file to combine parental and offspring’s data. Participants were classified as having the MetS according to the Adult Treatment Panel III criteria. Analyses were conducted separately for mothers and fathers. Logistic regression was used to estimate the associations.ResultsAfter adjusting for age, education, smoking, alcohol consumption and physical activity level of offspring, no significant association was found between father’s and their offspring’s MetS. Mother’s MetS was significantly and positively associated with their daughter’s MetS (adjusted odds ratio or adj OR: 1.63; 95% confidence Interval, CI:1.02-2.61), but not with their sons’ MetS. When analyzed by individual components, maternal impaired glucose (adj OR: 2.03; 95% CI: 1.02- 9.31), abdominal obesity (adj OR: 1.56; 95% CI: 0.98- 2.55) and low HDL-C (adj OR: 2.12; 95% CI: 1.36-3.32) were associated daughter’s MetS. Maternal low HDL-C and raised total cholesterol showed marginal association with son’s MetS. For fathers, only impaired glucose (adj OR: 4.91; 95% CI: 2.07- 11.68) was associated with their daughter’s MetS.ConclusionsUsing the data from Framingham Heart Study, we demonstrate differential association of MetS and its components between parents and offspring. Mother’s MetS was strongly related with daughter’s MetS, but the association was inconsistent with son’s MetS. No association was found between father’s MetS and offspring’s Mets. These results provide evidence that daughters with mother’s MetS are in higher risk than daughters or sons with father’s MetS.

Adult children's socioeconomic positions and their parents' mortality: A comparison of education, occupational class, and income

Recent research has shown that the parents of well-educated children live longer than do other parents and that this association is only partly confounded by the parent's own socioeconomic position. However, the relationships between other aspects of children's socioeconomic position (e.g., occupational class and economic resources) and parental mortality have not been examined.Using the Swedish Multi-generation Register that connects parents to their children, this paper studies the associations of children's various socioeconomic resources (education, occupation, and income) and parents' mortality. The models are adjusted for a range of parental socioeconomic resources and include the resources of the parents' partners. In addition to all-cause mortality, five causes of death are analyzed separately (circulatory disease mortality, overall cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, and prostate cancer).The results show net associations between all included indicators of children's socioeconomic position and parents' mortality risk, with the clearest association for education. Children's education is significantly associated with all of the examined causes of death except prostate cancer. Breast cancer mortality is negatively related to offspring's education but not the mothers' own education.To conclude, children's education seems to be a key factor compared with other dimensions of socioeconomic position in the offspring generation. This finding suggests that explanations linked to behavioral norms or knowledge are more plausible than those linked to access to material resources. However, it is possible that children's education – to a greater degree than class and income – captures unmeasured parental characteristics.The cause-specific analyses imply that future research should investigate whether offspring's socioeconomic position is linked to the likelihood of developing diseases and/or the chances of treating them. A broader family perspective in the description and explanations of social inequalities in health that includes the younger generation may increase our understanding of why these inequalities persist across the life course.

Household Asset Allocation, Offspring Education, and the Sandwich Generation

This paper finds households with children and elderly dependents, the Sandwich Generation, significantly reduce both college savings and stockholding. Having any elderly dependents decreases the probability of both stockholding and college savings by twice as much as poor personal health. Hence, these results have critical implications as they demonstrate the importance and magnitude of links between the pension system, college financial aid, and wealth accumulation. Elderly dependents limiting parental funds for offspring education can decrease offspring long-term earnings potential via decreased human capital accumulation. Furthermore, decreased stock holdings can decrease long-term wealth accumulation and thus intergenerational wealth transfers.

Education, Elderly Health, and Differential Population Aging in South Korea: A Demographic Approach

AbstractBACKGROUNDPopulation aging proceeds with other socioeconomic developments, including educational expansion. Improvements in educational attainment lead to changes in demographic behaviors such as assortative mating, fertility, and the intergenerational transmission of education, which change the health of the elderly and the education of their offspring generation.OBJECTIVEWe examine such a jointly-changing process in South Korea.METHODSWe apply a recursive demographic model (Mare and Maralani 2006) by using the Korean Longitudinal Study of Ageing (KLoSA).RESULTSFirst, improvements in education lead to improvements in health among the elderly. Intermediate demographic factors make positive contributions to this improvement. Second, improvements in education lead to a decline in the ratios of offspring to the elderly because better-educated people have fewer children. However, this decrease is not substantial. Third, improvements in education increase the ratio of college-educated offspring to the unhealthy elderly because of improvements in both offspring's education and elderly health.CONCLUSIONThe results suggest that improvements in education change configurations of the elderly and their offspring's generations, mitigating the negative consequences of population aging, such as increasing burdens of elderly support.(ProQuest: ... denotes formulae omitted.)1. Introduction: Alternative ways to measure population agingPopulation aging is a worldwide phenomenon, with the median age of the world population forecast to rise to 38.1 years in 2050 from 26.7 years in 2000 (Goldstein 2009). Population aging has important socioeconomic consequences because the age structure of a population determines the ratio of net producers to net consumers in a population. Hence, most industrialized countries are concerned about negative consequences of population aging and have attempted to develop pronatal policies that balance the population's age structure (Kalwij 2010; McDonald 2002). Population aging, however, also occurs in tandem with other socioeconomic changes such as educational expansion and improvements in health, which may mitigate the consequences of rising dependency ratios. Skirbekk, Loichinger, and Weber (2012) proposed a new measure of population aging-the cognition-adjusted dependency ratio (CADR)-and showed that the ranking for degree of population aging depends upon the measures: whereas India has fewer elderly people per working-aging individual than the U.S., the U.S. has fewer cognitively-limited elderly people per working-age individual than India. There is also evidence that increasing human capital per capita may offset the loss of total economic product due to fertility decline in a population level (Lee and Mason 2010) and the cost of supporting an elderly population may be reduced as the health of the elderly has continued to improve over decades (Martin, Schoeni, and Andreski 2010). In other words, -population aging is intrinsic to the processes that bring us a highly-educated population and comfortable standards of living (Lee and Mason 2010: 179). In this study, we examine changing joint configuration of the elderly and their offspring in terms of health and educational attainment by applying a demographic model.Accounting for the changing configurations of the elderly and the offspring generation is important in population aging. This has been largely overlooked, however, in previous research. Earlier studies found that the better-educated enjoy better health and survival chances in later life than do the less educated (e.g., Cutler and Lleras- Muney 2008; Elo and Preston 1996). Based on this positive educational gradient in health and survival chances, recent studies have used educational attainment in projecting the size of the elderly population in the future (Batljan, Lagergren, and Thorslund 2009; Batljan and Thorslund 2009; Joung et al. …

Associations between family size and offspring education depend on aspects of parental personality

Personality traits have been associated with fertility rates, but little is known how parental personality is associated with trade-offs between family size and offspring outcomes. Using the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (n=5422 parents with 17,253 adult biological offspring), we examined whether parental personality traits assessed with the Five Factor Model (extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience) modified associations between family size (measured as offspring number and birth order) and offspring education. Compared to low parental neuroticism, high parental neuroticism was associated with stronger trade-off between number of offspring and offspring educational achievement. High parental openness to experience, in turn, was associated with higher educational achievement of early-born offspring but not of later-born offspring. These personality-dependent differences in trade-offs between family size and offspring outcomes may help to explain why some personality dimensions are associated with low fertility rates.

Intergenerational Mobility in the United States and Great Britain: A Comparative Study of Parent-Child Pathways.

We build on cross-national research to examine the relationships underlying estimates of relative intergenerational mobility in the United States and Great Britain using harmonized longitudinal data and focusing on men. We examine several pathways by which parental status is related to offspring status, including education, labor market attachment, occupation, marital status, and health, and perform several sensitivity analyses to test the robustness of our results. We decompose differences between the two nations into that part attributable to the strength of the relationship between parental income and the child's characteristics and the labor market return to those child characteristics. We find that the relationships underlying these intergenerational linkages differ in systematic ways between the two nations. In the United States, primarily because of the higher returns to education and skills, the pathway through offspring education is relatively more important than it is in Great Britain; by contrast, in Great Britain the occupation pathway forms the primary channel of intergenerational persistence.

Od “tradit et acceptat ius in corpus” do “sese mutuo tradunt et accipiunt”. Ewolucja w ujęciu istotnego przedmiotu zgody małżeńskiej

In the article, the Author showed the evolution – from the Code of Canon Law of 1917 to the Code of Canon Law of 1983 – of the essential subject of the matrimonial consent. In the Code of Canon Law of 1917 there was biology conception of the marriage. According to the can. 1081 § 2, an essential subject of this consent are acceptance and transmission “ius in corpus”. Therefore, the material subject was the undying and the sole right to the body of the spouse, while the formal subject was sexual intercourse. According to the teaching of the Vatican Council II, marriage is a community of life and love conjugal. What is more, marriage is not only for the procreation and education of offspring, but also for the good of the spouses. Consequently, the phrase “ius in corpus” has been removed from the Cod e o f Canon Law of 1983.

The Composition of Family Background: The Influence of the Economic and Cultural Resources of both Parents on the Offspring's Educational Attainment in the Netherlands between 1939 and 1991

This article studies the effect of parental background on the educational attainment of the offspring. In particular, it compares the effects of parental occupation and education and investigates whether the relative importance of these resources have shifted over time. In addition, this article studies, which parent has the strongest effect on the offspring's education. Using data for the Netherlands, this article finds that occupational status has the same effect regardless of who contributed it, while for the effect of parental education, it matters whether the parent is the highest, same, or lowest educated parent. No evidence was found that the relative sizes of these effects have changed over cohorts.

Human Reason, the Inclination to Procreation and Education of Offspring, and Society

AbstractSt Thomas's hylomorphic anthropology grounds his famous statement of the precepts of the natural law in the Summa Theologiae. When we come to the third precept of the natural law, namely man's inclination to good according to the nature of his reason, we enter into the realm of politics. On account of the incarnate nature of human reason, the other natural human inclinations are also imbued with political significance. Right reason, which is also incarnate reason, tells us that procreation and marriage have an intrinsic mutual ordination to each other. Heterosexual marriage is the unique locus in which children can both be procreated and be given the upbringing and education which is their right. Since society has a special purchase on children in order to ensure its future – and its future well-being – heterosexual marriage ought to enjoy a special legal status and protection. The corollary is that society can only undermine the conditions of its own well-being if it tries to tamper with the meaning of marriage as heretofore understood by granting gay unions the legal rights and duties of heterosexual marriage.

Family venture fund for future generations' entrepreneurial education

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to analyze the feasibility and challenges of one open training model in family‐owned companies' offspring education, regarded as CHINT's prodigal fund.Design/methodology/approachThe paper is currently confined to literature and case study on CHINT's prodigal fund and is primarily based on the documents analysis and interviews with the members from the board of supervisors and the board of directors.FindingsThe relationship between the performance of venture capital fund and the succession was analyzed. It is found that the two main reasons affecting the development of prodigal fund are the unsystematically organization of fund development and the lack of diligence. Finally, to attract and motivate the use of family venture funds and to establish a sound governance mechanism will be the two chief areas to promote the development of family funds.Originality/valueIt is the first attempt to analyze and summarize this creative practice in succession – family venture fund. The case study provides a valuable perspective on educating the entrepreneurial spirit of innovation and exploration.

“Modernization” increases parental investment and sibling resource competition: evidence from a rural development initiative in Ethiopia

Evolutionary models of parental investment often assume that negative effects of competition between offspring (i.e., quantity-quality trade-off effects) will be most apparent under conditions of resource scarcity. However, improvements in resource access associated with “modernization” may reduce levels of extrinsic environmental risk, creating a stronger association between parental investment and offspring success. Here we provide evidence that a rural development initiative in Ethiopia is associated with increased levels of parental investment in offspring status and increased levels of competition for this investment between siblings. Villages with access to an improved water supply, which have reduced levels of childhood mortality, are associated with higher investments in education, and the likelihood of offspring education is more determined by position within the family, compared to neighboring villages without access to water taps. However, there is no evidence of higher parental investment of base-level resources directly related to child health (indicated by childhood vaccination rates). Educational investment may be more sensitive to mortality changes, despite being costly and “surplus” to essential functions, because it has the potential to introduce the greatest economic payoffs for children, e.g., from jobs in an emerging wage-labour market. While tap villages are currently associated with a higher birth rate, we anticipate that in time, and with improved access to family planning, fertility will drop in response to shifts in environmental risk and improved pay-offs to strategies of high parental investment. These villages may be experiencing the initial stages of a demographic transition to small family sizes.

Turismo no percurso do tempo. Tourism in the threshold of time. Marian Rejowski (Ed.). San Pablo: El-Aleph. 2002

The question as to why travels and expe- ditions are inextricably intertwined to tourism and hospitality is a matter very hard to grasp. Anyway, this has motivated in historians a search for the ancient roots of tourism. Of course Greeks and Romans en- joyed themselves by traveling for knowing new customs (education purposes) or for relax. However, these movements were not considered forms of tourism because of many reasons. One of them and perhaps the more reasonable was the consideration of roman leisure (and within this term the trip) as a part of sacred-space. Typically, unlike modern tourism, ancient festivals characterized to be held in honor to certain divinity and participants were rushed to take part of them. For other hand, travels were for ancients a mechanism to improve education of off-spring or part of duties as officials. In general, the populace was not accustomed to travel for resting. However, it is safe to say the ancient leisure paved the ways for the future configuration of modern tourism.

Standard measures of inter-generational social mobility distort actual patterns of mobility and health behaviour: evidence for a better methodology

Objective: Researchers commonly ignore initial social level (e.g. low, middle, and high) when classifying inter-generational social mobility as upward, stable, or downward. This article examines the consequences of this practice in the study of social mobility's relationship to tobacco and alcohol use. Design: Mobility was tracked using Norway's 1970 (mother's education) and 1998 (offspring's education) national education registry's, linked to a 1998 national survey providing data on offspring's tobacco and alcohol use. Setting: Community. Participants: One thousand and forty-five randomly selected Norwegians aged 24–31 years, and their mothers. Main outcome measures: Tobacco and alcohol use. Results: Within upward-stable- and downward-mobile groups, sub-groups of offspring defined by the education level of their mothers had significantly different levels of tobacco and alcohol use. Stable social mobility at the intermediary level was associated with alcohol consumption of less than one to three times per month, and stable social mobility at the high level was associated with alcohol intake of two to three times a week. Upward mobility from low to high and middle to high levels was associated with consumption levels once a week, but upward mobility from low to middle level was associated with a consumption level of less than once a month. The associations between social mobility and tobacco use were similarly complex. Conclusions: A literature characterised by mixed findings suffers from classification imprecision, following from the erroneous assumption that all forms of upward, stable, and downward social mobility are equivalent with respect to health behaviour. If future research is in accord with the findings of this study, then aggregation of diverse social mobility patterns into a few gross categories is not commendable.

EFFECT OF INBREEDING ON WEIGHT GAIN OF OFFSPRING FROM BIRTH TO 12 MONTHS AFTER BIRTH: A STUDY FROM IRAN

Consanguinity, the marriage between relatives, has been associated with adverse child health outcomes. The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of consanguinity on offspring weight gain from birth to 12 months after birth. Data were collected on 250 consecutive live-born singleton newborns referred to a local health centre in Shiraz (Fars province, southern Iran). Collected data covered socio-demographic characteristics (such as parental age at delivery and parental education), sex, birth order, weights from birth to 12 months after birth and consanguinity of marriages of parents. Considering the low prevalence of double first cousin, first cousin once removed, second cousin, and beyond second cousin marriages, only first cousin and unrelated marriages were included in the study. The study population consisted of a total of 207 newborns (57 offspring of first cousins, 150 offspring of unrelated marriages). Based on the results of repeated measurements analysis of variance, weight gain was associated with type of marriage (p=0.018), sex of offspring (p=0.001) and paternal education (p<0.001). There was no interaction between type of marriage and sex (p=0.831). Birth weight was not affected by type of marriage (p=0.46). There was significant interaction between inbreeding and time (p=0.034). Offspring of consanguineous marriages showed lower weight gain in comparison with those of unrelated marriages during 3-12 months after birth.