Offshore Wind Sector Research Articles

Perspectives on offshore wind farms development in Great Lakes

Our atmosphere is overloading with carbon dioxide and other global warming emissions due to human activities. It causes a web of significant and harmful impacts. Renewable energy resources produce little to no global warming emissions. To date, most of the existing offshore wind farms have been deployed in shallow ocean-coastal areas. The salinity of the ocean averages approximately 35 percent. The Great Lakes with freshwater have shown high potential for installing offshore wind farms, and significant advantages. In this study, the potential capacity for installing offshore wind farms in Great Lakes is discussed based on the wind pattern and speed. Also, it includes the barriers, issues, wind vision, advantages and disadvantages, the most appropriate locations for erecting the offshore wind farms in Great Lakes, updated offshore wind farms, and statistics for decision-makers, interested communities and investors. This paper is among the rare works that have been done in aspect of statistical and data for the wind offshore in Great Lakes as the moratorium in Canadian side and the difficulties in obtaining permissions in the American side put the offshore wind sector on pause for a long time, and recently (since 2016) it started to get some momentum.

Economic and employment impacts of offshore wind for Ireland: A value chain analysis

ABSTRACT The imminent development of a number of offshore wind farms in the Republic of Ireland presents a sizable opportunity to stimulate the Irish economy through the growth of an indigenous and globally competitive offshore wind supply chain. This study uses a value chain analysis to evaluate the economic and employment potential of the offshore wind sector for Ireland. The analysis is based on the expenditure on products and services required to develop an offshore wind farm, the planned capacity of projects in the pipeline, and the ability of Irish companies to supply the sector. Results suggest that by 2030, 2.5–4.5GW of domestic offshore wind development could create between 11,424 and 20,563 supply chain jobs and generate between €763 m and €1.4bn in gross value added. This is the first study to estimate domestic GVA potential for the sector.

Community Benefits and UK Offshore Wind Farms: Evolving Convergence in a Divergent Practice

The Offshore Wind sector is a major, dynamic, and rapidly evolving renewable energy industry. This is particularly so in Europe, and especially in the UK. Associated with the growth of the industry has been a growth of interest in community benefits as voluntary measures provided by a developer to the host community. However, in many cases, and for some of the large North Sea distant offshore wind farms, the benefits packages have been disparate and pro rata much smaller than for the well-established onshore wind farm industry. However, there are signs of change. This paper explores the issues of community benefits for the UK offshore sector and evolving practice, as reflected in a macro study of the adoption of community benefits approaches across the industry. This is followed by a more in-depth micro- approach, which explores approaches that have been adopted in three case studies of recent OWF projects — Aberdeen, Beatrice and the Hornsea Array. Whilst there is still much divergence in practice, there are also examples of some convergence, and the development of a more replicable practice. Particularly notable is the adoption of annual community benefits funds, as the key element of community benefits schemes/agreements between developers, local authorities and local communities.

Probabilistic access forecasting for improved offshore operations

Improving access is a priority in the offshore wind sector, driven by the opportunity to increase revenues, reduce costs, and improve safety at operational wind farms. This paper describes a novel method for producing probabilistic forecasts of safety-critical access conditions during crew transfers. Methods of generating density forecasts of significant wave height and peak wave period are developed and evaluated. It is found that boosted semi-parametric models outperform those estimated via maximum likelihood, as well as a non-parametric approach. Scenario forecasts of sea-state variables are generated and used as inputs to a data-driven vessel motion model, based on telemetry recorded during 700 crew transfers. This enables the production of probabilistic access forecasts of vessel motion during crew transfer up to 5 days ahead. The above methodology is implemented on a case study at a wind farm off the east coast of the UK.

A comparative insight of Irish and Scottish regulatory frameworks for offshore wind energy – An expert perspective

Occupying a vast marine resource, Ireland has significant potential to develop an offshore wind sector. This research investigates the key enablers and constraints to achieving that objective, using Scotland as a jurisdiction for comparative analysis. Scotland was chosen for comparative analysis due to the presence of Marine Scotland as a ‘One-Stop-Shop’ (OSS) for project consenting, its track record in scaling and growing the offshore wind sector, especially in the last decade, and innovative advances in the generation of floating wind. The research utilises a qualitative method through 25 semi-structured interviews with experts selected from industry and policy. Enablers and constraints to offshore wind development were identified for both Scotland and Ireland. These included policy, consenting, organisational structures, decision making pathways and timelines, skills, subsidies, investment in infrastructure, and uncertainty caused by Brexit. Following analysis of these factors, the research notes four recommendations for progressing the Irish offshore wind sector, which include: i). a government policy statement on offshore wind, ii). enactment of foreshore legislation to enable project development, iii). increased integration and resourcing across government departments, and iv). increased capacity building (knowledge generation and engagement of stakeholders).

The economic and environmental impacts of UK offshore wind development: The importance of local content

We explore, through simulation of a purpose-built Input-Output model of the UK, the economic and emissions impacts of the likely future development of the UK’s offshore wind sector, with a particular emphasis on the importance of local content. We explore six scenarios, including two illustrative simulations of the potential impact of Brexit on local content. We find that future offshore wind development does indeed generate a policy “double dividend” in the form of simultaneous and substantial reductions in cumulative emissions, which in each case exceed a year of the UK’s total emissions, and improvements in economic activity (of nearly £30 billion cumulative increase in value-added when the 60% target for local content is achieved). It is also the case that, as anticipated, the scale of the economic stimulus arising from offshore wind development is directly and strongly related to the extent of local content. Future work could extend the modelling to relax the supply side assumptions of input-output modelling, disaggregate the analysis by regions and households to allow assessment of the impacts on the distribution of both economic activity across regions and income among household quintiles.

A life cycle cost model for floating offshore wind farms

Over the last few decades, there has been a renewed interest in the offshore wind sector. In particular, floating wind turbines represent the next frontier in the wind power industry. Currently, only research prototypes exist, and few studies are available on their possible investment cost. Therefore, a cost assessment for this technology is necessary to ascertain whether it is economically sustainable. This paper develops a life cycle cost model for floating offshore wind farms, bringing together the most up-to-date data and parametric equations from databases and literature. The cost model considers the key parameters of the wind power economy, namely CAPEX, OPEX, DECEX and LCOE. The proposed model should be helpful for future decision-making, as the wind energy industry is in constant evolution. An application to an offshore floating wind farms is also carried out, in which the three main types of floaters are considered, namely the Semi-Submersible Platform, the Spar Buoy and the Tension Leg Platform. An average LCOE of 9.74 €c/kWh was found, at the lower bound of the typical range applying to fixed base offshore wind farms, and higher than typical values applying to onshore wind farms.

Governing Risks of Multi-Use: Seaweed Aquaculture at Offshore Wind Farms

Spatial claims concerning the rapidly growing European offshore wind sector give rise to various ideas for the multi-use application of wind farms. Seaweed is considered a promising feedstock for food and feed that could be produced at offshore wind farms. Concerns about risks resulting in liability claims and insurance premiums are often seen as show-stoppers to multi-use at offshore wind farms. In this study, key environmental risks of seaweed cultivation at offshore wind farms, identified through literature review, are characterized based on stakeholder consultation. The current approach to risk governance is evaluated to assess how it can handle the uncertain, complex, and/or ambiguous risks of multi-use. It is concluded that current risk governance for multi-use is poorly equipped to deal with the systemic nature of risks. Risk governance should be a joint effort of governments and private regulators. It can improve if it is based on an adaptive framework for risk assessment that can deal with complex, systemic risks. Furthermore, it should be flexible and inclusive, i.e., open to new incoming information and , stakeholder input, and taking take into account and communicate about the different stakes and values of the various parties involved. The importance of communication and inclusion must be recognized, which promotes participation of concerned stakeholders.

Parametric study of dynamic inter-array cable systems for floating offshore wind turbines

The rapid emergence of the floating offshore wind sector requires the development of new technologies such as dynamic inter-array cables. This work gives an insight into the hydrostatic predesign of such a cable system looking from side view. Numerical analyses are performed to compare two umbilical shapes, namely catenary and lazy wave shape. In a parametric study, water depth and cable length are varied. As outcome, a unique and generalized recommendation for a first umbilical design is presented. Finally, an outlook to the dynamic analysis of umbilicals in future work is given.

Why does the offshore wind industry need standardized HSE management systems? An evidence from Denmark

The offshore wind sector is one of the key sources for producing renewable energy. Though there is a rapid growth in the offshore wind sector, there is still a dearth of synchronization in HSE (Health, Safety and Environment) standards. This paper attempts to ascertain what are the major challenges of the company specific HSE standards, why does the offshore wind industry need a standardized HSE management system and who can play the key role in this process? To achieve these objectives, this research applies the interview and survey techniques. The research identified several key challenges such as gaps in coordination and communication among the stakeholders, gaps in incident reporting systems and the absence of a common HSE standard to overcome these challenges. Seven stakeholders were identified who can influence the development process of a harmonized HSE management system. However, the operators and turbine manufacturers are the key stakeholders to play role in this development process. The results of this study provide the top management to understand the problems associated with the current un-harmonized company specific HSE management systems and how to address these problems by creating a common HSE management standard to achieve the goal of 'zero accidents'.

Evaluation of the wind power potential in the European nearshore of the Mediterranean Sea

In the last years, the offshore wind sector has been constantly growing in Europe, coming also with a very competitive production price. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the wind power potential in the European coastal environment of the Mediterranean Sea, an area with a high population density. Furthermore, a high energy demand exists here and the potential of the renewable energy resources needs to be assessed for further exploitation. The analysis was performed considering some reference locations. The climate change impact on the wind energy resource is also investigated. Various comparisons between historical data and future climate projections simulated by a Regional Climate Model under RCP4.5 scenario are made. The results obtained show that in various locations, especially in Golf of Lion and the Aegean Sea, there are appropriate conditions for offshore wind exploitations.

European offshore wind engineering – past, present and future

The paper tells the story of 25 years of technology developments and engineering challenges in the European offshore wind sector. Since the world’s first offshore wind farm at Vindeby in Denmark in 1991, the offshore wind industry has developed into a significant business across north-western Europe and beyond. The paper describes the early development of the wind industry in Denmark, followed by a focus on the evolution of offshore foundation concepts, their applicability and their pros and cons.

The LEANWIND suite of logistics optimisation and full lifecycle simulation models for offshore wind farms

The offshore wind sector has achieved significant cost reductions in recent years. However, there is still work to be done to maintain and surpass these savings across current and future farms. There is increased competition to reduce costs within the industry itself. Additional challenges are foreseen at future sites located further from shore, in harsher conditions and deeper waters. Larger turbines and projects also mean new equipment, logistics and maintenance requirements. Moreover, farms are approaching the decommissioning phase where there is little experience. Modelling is a safe and cost-effective way to evaluate and optimise operations. However, there is a lack of comprehensive decision-support tools, detailed enough to provide insight into the effects of technological innovations and novel strategies. To address the gap, the EU FP7 LEANWIND project developed a suite of state-of-the-art logistics optimisation and financial simulation models. They can assess a farm scenario in detail at every stage of the project lifecycle and supply-chain, identifying potential cost reductions and more efficient strategies. This paper introduces the models including: an overview of their scope and capabilities; how they can be applied; and the potential end users.

Streamlining the consent process for the implementation of offshore wind farms in Spain, considering existing regulations in leading European countries

Despite an extensive coastline and clear potential for the use of wind energy, the development of the offshore wind sector in Spain is currently in impasse. Environmental, technical, economic, social, and legal factors have all contributed to a failure to bring wind energy projects to fruition in any meaningful way.The main regulatory obstacles comprise excessively complex sets of procedures, with long deadlines and the involvement of numerous agencies. A lack of coordination between them has been reported to have caused significant delays and spiralling costs in the implementation of Offshore Wind Farm (OWF) projects in several States, which may well have discouraged investment by developers.This research contains an analysis of the consent procedures necessary to implement OWFs in Spain, and provides a comparative assessment of the systems of authorization used in other European countries with better track records in the development and implementation of offshore wind energy, with the overall aim of proposing regulatory improvements that could make the procedure for developers in Spain more “attractive”, thereby encouraging greater investment in offshore wind.In the first part of the article, the relevant characteristics of the various authorization procedures established in the domestic law of the leading European countries in terms of the development of offshore wind (the UK, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany) are analysed on a scheme-by-scheme basis. The second part contains a discussion of the characteristics of the process of consent used in Spain followed by European Union (EU) recommended measures for improving consent processes for other energy projects (Ocean Energy projects and Projects of Common Interest). Finally, some alternatives are proposed focusing on improving the speed and efficiency of the authorization process used in Spain, taking as a reference the different regulatory systems followed by Comparative Law and EU recommended measures, and ending with a brief analysis of the influence that maritime spatial planning can have on Spanish consent process.

A Novel Hybrid Wind-Wave Energy Converter for Jacket-Frame Substructures

The growth of the offshore wind industry in the last couple of decades has made this technology a key player in the maritime sector. The sustainable development of the offshore wind sector is crucial for this to consolidate within a global scenario of climate change and increasing threats to the marine environment. In this context, multipurpose platforms have been proposed as a sustainable approach to harnessing different marine resources and combining their use under the same platform. Hybrid wind-wave systems are a type of multipurpose platform where a single platform combines the exploitation of offshore wind and wave energy. In particular, this paper deals with a novel hybrid wind-wave system that integrates an oscillating water column wave energy converter with an offshore wind turbine on a jacket-frame substructure. The main objective of this paper is to characterise the hydrodynamic response of the WEC sub-system of this hybrid energy converter. A 1:50 scale model was tested under regular and irregular waves to characterise the hydrodynamic response of the WEC sub-system. The results from this analysis lead to the proof of concept of this novel hybrid system; but additionally, to characterising its behaviour and interaction with the wave field, which is a requirement for fully understanding the benefits of hybrid systems.

Path creation, global production networks and regional development: A comparative international analysis of the offshore wind sector

The question of how regions and nations develop new sources of industrial growth is of recurring interest in economic geography and planning studies. From an evolutionary economic geography (EEG) perspective, new growth paths emerge out of existing economic activities and their associated assets and conditions. In response to the micro-economic and endogenous focus of much EEG research, this paper utilises a broader evolutionary perspective on path creation which stresses the dynamic interplay between four sets of factors: regional assets; key economic and organisational actors; mechanisms of path creation; and multi-scalar institutional environments and policy initiatives. Reflecting the importance of extra-regional networks and institutions, this framework is also informed by the Global Production Networks (GPN) approach, which highlights the process of strategic coupling between firms and regions and its political and institutional mediation by state institutions at different spatial scales. We deploy this framework to investigate regional path creation in the context of renewable energy technologies, focusing specifically on the offshore wind industry. We adopt a comparative cross-national approach, examining the evolution of offshore wind in Germany, the UK and Norway. Of the three cases, Germany has developed the most deep-rooted and holistic path to date, characterised by leading roles in both deployment and manufacturing. By contrast, path creation in the UK and Norway has evolved in more partial and selective ways. The UK’s growth path is developing in a relatively shallow manner, based largely upon deployment and ‘outside in’ investment, whilst Norway’s path is emerging in an exogenous, ‘inside-out’ fashion around a fairly confined set of actors and deployment and supply functions. In conclusion, the paper emphasises the important role of national states in orchestrating the strategic coupling of regional and national assets to particular mechanisms of path creation.

Probabilistic examination of the change in eigenfrequencies of an offshore wind turbine under progressive scour incorporating soil spatial variability

The trend for development in the offshore wind sector is towards larger turbines in deeper water. This results in higher wind and wave loads on these dynamically sensitive structures. Monopiles are the preferred foundation solution for offshore wind structures and have a typical expected design life of 20 years. These foundations have strict serviceability tolerances (e.g. mudline rotation of less than 0.25° during operation). Accurate determination of the system frequency is critical in order to ensure satisfactory performance over the design life, yet determination of the system stiffness and in particular the operational soil stiffness remains a significant challenge. Offshore site investigations typically focus on the determination of the soil conditions using Cone Penetration Test (CPT) data. This test gives large volumes of high quality data on the soil conditions at the test location, which can be correlated to soil strength and stiffness parameters and used directly in pile capacity models. However, a combination of factors including; parameter transformation, natural variability, the relatively small volume of the overall sea bed tested and operational effects such as the potential for scour development during turbine operation lead to large uncertainties in the soil stiffness values used in design. In this paper, the effects of scour erosion around unprotected foundations on the design system frequencies of an offshore wind turbine is investigated numerically. To account for the uncertainty in soil-structure interaction stiffness for a given offshore site, a stochastic ground model is developed using the data resulting from CPTs as inputs. Results indicate that the greater the depth of scour, the less certain a frequency-based SHM technique would be in accurately assessing scour magnitude based solely on first natural frequency measurements. However, using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, the chance of detecting the presence of scour from the output frequencies is improved significantly and even modest scour depths of 0.25 pile diameters can be detected.

Renewable Opportunities: The Growing Range of Renewable Options for Oil and Gas

The Growing Range of Renewable Options for Oil and Gas Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor The offshore renewable energy business shares a lot of similarities with offshore oil and gas development. The designs of the structures are similar, as are the work vessels needed to build and maintain them. Corroding steel is a shared obsession, as is the soil analysis needed to be sure a structure is on sound footing. All of which could create opportunities for idle experts in offshore oil and gas construction and services. “With the expertise of the oil and gas industry, we can tackle a lot of challenges,” said Alana Duerr, offshore wind lead for the US Department of Energy, during a speech at the 2017 Offshore Technology Conference where she asked for technical assistance to spark US offshore wind development. The speech promoted the US offshore wind sector, which shares an unfortunate similarity to offshore exploration and production: it is not cost-competitive with onshore producers, whether it is wind, solar, or unconventional oil and gas. That is the problem in most parts of the world with the exception of the North Sea, where there has been aggressive development with support from governments concerned about carbon emissions. “The offshore wind sector has overtaken North Sea oil and gas,” said Lee Grace, senior naval architect at Vard Marine, during a presentation at OTC about a workboat the company developed for that market, which looks similar to those used in oil and gas (OTC 27772). But given the deep slump in the offshore oil sector, there is reason for oil and gas contractors to consider their options. Off the US east coast there is a large opportunity, with strong, steady winds near some of the biggest energy markets in the country. But the price is more than double the cost of onshore wind generation or gas-powered plants. Waves are Full of Energy, Sometimes Destructively So Stephen Rassenfoss, JPT Emerging Technology Senior Editor Ocean waves are potential sources of energy that are powerful, often more readily available than wind and solar, and closer to population centers along coastlines. But so far it is mostly just potential. Using the unpredictable changes of the ocean to drive the turbines of a largescale floating generator is a problem, but hardly the only one that has yet to be solved. “Wave energy current devices you put in the ocean need to be cost-effective and need to compete with what the other options are,” said Donald Gehring, president of Marine Energy Co. The structural engineer, who has long made his living advising companies active in offshore oil and gas development, has developed a fascination with the challenges posed by wave power and has a design he thinks can reach the break-even level. Heavy-Oil Technology May Be a Perfect Fit for Geothermal Power Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor While the economic future of greenfield heavy-oil projects is in serious doubt these days, one prominent applied research group in Canada said that some of the technologies involved with heavy oil have the potential to be used around the world. The catch is that the technologies— specifically those involved in steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)— would be primarily used not to produce oil, but geothermal power. “We believe that Alberta has been doing geothermal backwards for 30 years,” said Brian Wagg, director of business development at Edmonton-based C-FER Technologies, who explained how SAGD centers on pushing large volumes of steam into the ground via injection well where it heats viscous oil to a point at which it flows freely into a producing well. The concept that C-FER is promoting is termed an enhanced geothermal system and involves sending cool water down an injector well to become heated by moving through a nonhydrocarbon-bearing rock formation. Solar EOR Firm Looks To Heat Up the Competition Trent Jacobs, JPT Digital Editor German startup Solarlite is trying to do two things for oil companies: make steam, and make it cheap. Founded in 2004, the firm specializes in manufacturing concentrated solar power (CSP) systems that have mainly been used for small-scale electricity generation. But that application is being squeezed by another solar energy technology, photovoltaics (PVs), and so the company is now looking at enhanced oil recovery (EOR) for its future business. “The price of PVs has declined so dramatically that, at least for power generation, people question if CSP can actually survive,” said Steven Geiger, director of business development for Solarlite. “Our idea is to basically use the sun to produce heat, or steam in this case, and escape the competition from PVs.”

The Importance of Learning for Achieving the UK's Targets for Offshore Wind

Using a purpose-built, multi-sectoral energy-economy-environmental model we evaluate the economic and environmental impact of a reduction in the levelized costs of offshore wind energy generation in the UK. Our modelling approach suggests that in order to significantly increase the offshore wind capacity in the UK the required fall in the generation cost should be larger than expected and certainly bigger than that implied by the most recent cost projections developed by the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC). Potential expansion of the offshore wind sector in the UK crucially depends on the price sensitivity of the energy supply sector and on agent's expectations. Only in our more optimistic scenario do we reach DECC's ambitious challenge of 22 GW offshore wind deployment in 2030 through a constant learning rate alone.

Improving the lateral capacity of monopiles in submarine clay

The European offshore wind sector has been undergoing tremendous growth, resulting in offshore wind farms having larger wind turbines that are located further away from the shore in harsh environmental conditions. To cater for the resulting higher loads, the current trend has been to continually increase the size of the monopile, which is the most popular foundation type. However, this is not viable in the long term given the current installation technology. This paper presents the results of three-dimensional finite-element analyses investigating the improvement in the lateral capacity of a large-diameter monopile in clay when used in combination with hybrid features and rock armour. Non-skirted reinforced concrete and steel footings, a skirted steel footing and steel fins were assessed under a combination of vertical, lateral and moment loads expected at an offshore wind farm location with a water depth of 30 m. The findings, based on shear and bending moment developed in the monopile and mobilised soil resistance, indicate the skirted steel footing and fins to be the most effective in enhancing monopile lateral capacity at serviceability.