Offshore Egypt Research Articles

Prestack seismic inversion versus neural-network analysis: A case study in the Scarab field offshore Nile Delta, Egypt

In clastic depositional systems such as those encountered in the Nile Delta Basin, simultaneous prestack seismic-amplitude inversion is an effective method for detecting and appraising gas-bearing sandstone reservoirs. However, the method has limitations concerning the requirement of a reliable set of wavelets, suitable wireline logs, and a sufficiently dense initial model. The neural-network analysis method is an alternative technique which sometimes can provide similar or better results and does not require significant volumes of data. Simultaneous prestack inversion was applied over the Scarab field, West Delta Deep Marine concession, offshore Egypt. The field comprises submarine channel-based gas reservoirs that extend laterally over 20 km2. Six wells were analyzed in a rock-physics study prior to performing inversion. Three angle gathers (near: 0–15°; mid: 15–30°; far: 30–45°) were inverted for P-wave impedance (ZP), S-wave impedance (ZS), P-wave velocity (VP), S-wave velocity (VS), VP/VS, and density (ρ) using the prestack inversion method. Neural-network analysis was performed using full-stack seismic data along with well logs in the training stage, followed by cross-validation of results and rendering of VP, VS, VP/VS, and density volumes. The VP/VS volumes produced from the two methods were used to infer water saturation (Sw). Direct comparisons were made between neural-network and prestack inversion results at a blind-well location to assess the relative quality of each method. Results suggest that application of the proposed neural-network method leads to reliable inferences. Hence, using the neural-network method alone or along with the prestack inversion method has a positive impact on reserves growth and increased production.

New and emerging plays in the Eastern Mediterranean: an introduction

The Mediterranean Sea, as its name implies, lies between the landmasses of Europe, Middle East, and Africa. It is vast and diverse, and has a rich and complicated geological history that is still not fully understood. Hydrocarbons have been found and used on the shores of the Mediterranean for millennia. Oil and gas exploration and production have been moving progressively offshore, and several regions such as the Adriatic Sea, the Pelagian basin offshore Libya and Tunisia, and the offshore Nile delta have had established production for several decades (Fig. 1). But large parts of the Mediterranean, in particular its deep water areas, remain sparsely explored. In the last few years, the situation has been changing. Strong demand for hydrocarbons and rising oil and gas prices, combined with the improved technical capabilities for sub-salt seismic imaging and deep-water drilling, have led to renewed exploration interest in the Mediterranean offshore. Success in the Levant basin and the discovery of condensate in the pre-Messinian section offshore Egypt have brought the region into the spotlight. Applications of play types proven in other regions and improved seismic imaging of the deeper, sub-Messinian geology are prompting a reassessment of the oil and gas prospectivity of the region. Fig. 1. Map of the Eastern Mediterranean showing the basin locations and oil and gas discoveries. A Geological Society conference with the theme ‘New and Emerging Plays in the Eastern Mediterranean‘ took place in London from 23–25 February 2011. It brought together presenters and delegates from oil and gas companies, research institutes, government, seismic contractors, and academia. A selection of the material presented has been captured as peer-reviewed papers that appear in this thematic set. Although not all the material presented could be rendered into hard copy because of proprietary sensitivity, we believe that this set comprises a representative sample of …

Widespread active seepage activity on the Nile Deep Sea Fan (offshore Egypt) revealed by high-definition geophysical imagery

Fluid escape structures on the Nile Deep Sea Fan were investigated during the MEDIFLUX MIMES expedition in 2004. Mud volcanoes, pockmarks and authigenic carbonate structures were surveyed for the first time with a high-resolution deep-towed 75 kHz sidescan sonar and a 2–8 kHz Chirp sediment echosounder. In combination with existing multibeam bathymetry and detailed seafloor in situ geological observations, these new data allowed detailed seep analyses. About 60 gas flares were detected acoustically in the water column from the sidescan sonar raw data at water depths from 770 to 1700 m. These gas flares coincide at the seabed with 1) the centres of the mud volcanoes where mud is also extruded, 2) the borders of the mud volcanoes where the emitted gases contribute to the precipitation of authigenic carbonates, and 3) to the edges of broad sheets of authigenic carbonates. Subsurface sediments are commonly disturbed by ascending fluids throughout the delta, with an abundance of seep-related carbonate structures on the seafloor. The feeder channels below mud volcanoes, similar to the gas conduits below the widespread carbonate crust structures and pockmarks, are relatively narrow and, for the vast majority of them, do not exceed a few metres in diameter. The seeps on the Nile Deep Sea Fan clearly follow lineations on the seafloor that we can relate to faults.

Middle East and North Africa: overview

North Africa and the Middle East hold huge reserves and resources of oil and gas and are some of the most important regions for future hydrocarbon production. Recent drilling successes onshore Algeria and offshore Egypt, and renewed industry interest in Libya have re-invigorated exploration in North Africa. The Middle East holds the majority of the world's remaining oil and gas and offers a showcase for new research into the major plays and recent exploration/production advances. The North Africa and Middle East session at the 7th Petroleum Geology Conference brought together 12 papers ranging from keynotes on regional play evaluation to detailed field studies. Ten of those papers are published in this volume. Craig et al. provide a regional perspective that spans North Africa and the Middle East. The paper examines the entire stratigraphic interval and highlights the more challenging, older and deeper plays and higher risk, but more conventional, plays in under-explored frontier areas. It offers some …

True 3D—wide azimuth seismic comes of age onshore as well as offshore

The advantages of recording a well-sampled, wider range of azimuths on seismic surveys are being seen in different geological settings worldwide. The success of wide-azimuth surveys has been well documented for sub-salt illumination in the deep water plays of the Gulf of Mexico. Multi-azimuth surveys have similarly shown improved S/N beneath the Messinian unconformity offshore Egypt. More recently, the benefits of improved sampling (and hence attenuation) of noise by dense, wide-azimuth surveys have been demonstrated onshore Oman. Although the successful marine results have highlighted the benefits of true 3D or wide-azimuth surveys, land surveys have often been recorded with a wide range of azimuths for many years. The step-change occurring onshore is the dramatic increase in the trace density on wide-azimuth surveys. We are learning that one of the reasons that conventional land seismic data have often been viewed as noisy is that coherent energy, particularly near surface events, is grossly under-sampled. Modern land recording techniques such as overlapping vibrator sweeps, single vibrator (point source) recording, multiple vibrator fleets and high channel systems allow us to record data much more efficiently. In turn, these enabling technologies allow us to obtain much improved seismic data quality via greatly increased sampling density. Moreover, recording geometries on this new generation of land supercrews provide trace densities that are many times higher than on marine surveys. The next step for marine wide-azimuth surveys may require a similar step-change in recording density in order to address difficult geologies that cannot be imaged with current recording techniques.

From Lean to Extreme-Lean Well Profile: Field Experience in the Mediterranean Sea

Summary The main subject of this paper will be to outline the field experience achieved with a new type of well profile and directional drilling system. Reducing the cost of well construction has been a driver for many new technologies. The lean casing profile introduced by Eni SpA, the major Italian oil and gas company, about a decade ago was a successful step towards lowering the drilling and completion cost in the vertical, top-hole section. Automated vertical-drilling tools have been the technical enabler of such a concept. Recently, this oil company has moved further towards an even more radical "extreme-lean well profile." This paper gives a brief insight into the well-design concept and the enabling technology behind it. The drilling technology is based on the well-known automated vertical-drilling system, which has been enhanced by the capability to drill an enlarged hole size below a casing without compromising the verticality and hole quality. In the main part of the paper, two field applications, in the Mediterannean Sea and offshore Egypt, are described. The paper will also cover the lessons learned especially from the second of the first two field applications. The extreme-lean well profile and automated vertical-reaming technology can provide value to several drilling campaigns not only through the reduction of well-construction cost. Another major benefit is the ability to run an intermediate casing string, if required because of difficult well conditions, and still arrive at the same diameter of casing in the reservoir. The completion concept and the enabling tool technology are very unique and have not been available to the industry until recently.

Active venting at the Isis mud volcano, offshore Egypt: Origin and migration of hydrocarbons

The Isis mud volcano is an active camembert-like mud expulsion structure in the eastern Nile deep-sea fan area. It has been investigated during the NAUTINIL (2003) and MIMES (2004) cruises carried out within the MEDIFLUX project. Active, gas-rich fluid venting occurs at the Isis mud volcano as indicated by enhanced gas content in the sediments, having a measured 7.5 mmol of methane per liter of wet sediment in the central area of the mud volcano. In addition, gas bubble expulsions have resulted in the formation of multiple hydrocarbon plumes in the water column, with methane concentrations as high as 1550 nmol/L, compared to ∼ 1 nmol/L for background levels in deep water. In view of the stable carbon and hydrogen isotopic composition of methane ( δ 13C = − 55.1‰ VPDB, δD = − 203‰ VSMOW) and of higher hydrocarbons ( δ 13C of − 30.3‰, − 26.1‰, − 28.4‰, and − 25.0‰ VPDB, for ethane, propane, i-butane and n-butane, respectively), their origin is mainly thermogenic. These isotopic data also show that the wet compounds are co-generated with oil and we suggest they predominantly originate from type II kerogen source rocks of potentially variable maturity levels. At the centre of the mud volcano, the distinct kink observed in the pore water isotopic and dissolved species composition and its depth level change between subsequent cruises indicates a high frequency of fluid/gas expulsion. The seawater signature of the pore fluid in the upper part of the sediment column suggests that each expulsion is followed by a downward migration of overlying seawater. Such downward advection of bottom seawater may not only be related to the replacement of the ejected gas but also to the replacement of lower density pore fluid by bottom seawater. This mechanism is thought to be a common feature at mud volcanoes and gas seepage sites. In the peripheral zone, pore fluid is at seawater concentration and isotopic composition, down to a coring depth of 430 cmbsf. We suggest that the deeper downward advection of bottom seawater is related to the less frequent fluid/gas expulsion occurring at these sites compared to the centre sites. In this paper we show that a combination of geochemical tools used for hydrocarbons and pore water geochemistry is a powerful approach to detect sources of ascending fluid and to reveal post-eruptional fluidodynamic processes within mud volcanoes.

Balanced-Pressure Drilling With Continuous Circulation Using Jointed Drillpipe

This article, written by Technology Editor Dennis Denney, contains highlights of paper SPE 102859, "Balanced-Pressure Drilling With Continuous Circulation Using Jointed Drillpipe - Case History, Port Fouad Marine Deep-1, Exploration Well Offshore Egypt," by A. Calderoni, SPE, A. Chiura, SPE, and P. Valente, SPE, Eni-E&P Div.; F. Soliman, SPE, and E. Squintani, Petrobel; R.E. Vogel, SPE, Natl. Oilwell Varco; and J.W. Jenner, SPE, Coupler Developments Ltd., prepared for the 2006 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, 24-27 September. Previous attempts to drill this section failed, and balanced-pressure drilling (BPD) was identified as the only safe and practical drilling technique to use. The use of this drilling technique, together with the associated changes in drilling and well-control procedures, is presented. Introduction In the Port Fouad Marine Deep-1 (PFMD-1) well, a critical-pressure-gradient zone exists below 13,125 ft, with pore pressures exceeding 2.0-specific-gravity (SG) equivalent mud weight (EMW) and the difference between pore- and fracture-pressure gradients as low as 0.10 SG EMW. The dynamic- vs. hydrostatic-pressure difference between the equivalent circulating density (ECD) and the mud weight was equivalent to approximately 0.07 SG during drilling operations. The well was re-entered in June 2005 with a system that provides continuous circulation, and the problem zone was drilled maintaining constant ECD. Drilling difficulties resulting in the earlier suspension were overcome. BPD with uninterrupted circulation and revised drilling and well-control procedures significantly improved drilling performance and operational safety in the critical-gradient zone. Background In drilling environments having a narrow pore-pressure vs. fracture-pressure window, the difference between the ECD and mud weight is greater than (or very close to) the difference between pore pressure and fracture pressure. Drilling conventionally through such an environment is extremely difficult. The target depth of the well may not be achieved because the formation fracture pressure often is exceeded by the ECD, and losses occur when circulating normally. When the pumps are stopped to make a connection, removing the dynamic circulating pressure can induce flow and formation collapse. The solution is to avoid extreme transitory downhole-pressure effects during drillpipe connections by maintaining continuous circulation with a constant bottomhole pressure while adding drillpipe to or removing it from the drillstring. System The system shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is rig-floor-based and is used with a top-drive drilling system. It allows drillpipe connections to be made up or broken out without interrupting drilling-fluid circulation to the wellbore. The main unit is a pressure container constructed from three blowout-preventer (BOP) bodies, with pipe rams at the top, blind rams in the center, and inverted pipe rams at the bottom. A combination make/break power tong and a snubber are attached to the top and drillpipe slips to the bottom. The bore is 9 in. with a working-pressure rating of 5,000 psi and a maximum circulating rate of 1,000 gal/min. The unit is centered over the rotary table and the drillstring passes through it while drilling. The system also uses a mud-diverter unit, a top-drive interface, a control panel, and a control container with a hydraulic power unit.

Morphostructure of the Egyptian Continental Margin: Insights from Swath Bathymetry Surveys

In the Eastern Mediterranean, offshore Egypt, the Nile continental margin is characterized by a large deep water turbiditic system known as the Nile Deep Sea Fan. This post-Miocene terrigenous construction covers an approximately 10 km-thick sedimentary pile, including 1–3 km of Messinian salt layers. Systematically collected swath bathymetric data proved to be the most powerful tool to discover, describe and study many sea floor features of this sedimentary construction which reflects competition between active tectonic, sedimentary, and geochemical processes. Gravity tectonics, triggered by underlying mobile salt layers, construction of channel-levee systems, the passage of turbidite flows, sedimentary slope failures at various scales, massive mud expulsions and fluid seepages are all interfering to shape the Nile Deep Sea Fan seabed.

Seismic challenges of developing the pre-Pliocene Akhen Field offshore Nile Delta

BP's recent drilling results in the Akhen gas field, offshore Egypt, provide an excellent case study into the challenges of drilling and developing the pre-Pliocene in the Nile Delta. The challenges are significant and include Pliocene overpressure cells, variable thickness and rugosity of Miocene aged anhydrite, deep and complex structural elements, and seismic quality challenges. However, the reservoirs in the pre-Pliocene are known to contain very condensate-rich gas with high reservoir pressures and significant exploration potential, making this basin and this play a significant asset in BP's global portfolio.

An example study using conventional 3D seismic data to delineate shallow gas drilling hazards from the West Delta Deep Marine Concession, offshore Nile Delta, Egypt

This paper details a study that was completed at the end of 1999 to investigate the suitability of using existing, high quality, conventionally processed 3D seismic data (hereafter 3D data) to replace specifically commissioned 2D seismic site survey data (hereafter 2D site data). For this study, three wells from an existing dataset of six in the West Delta Deep Marine Concession, offshore Egypt (WDDM) were investigated. A prescriptive workflow was developed using the 3D data and the results compared to those obtained from a conventional previously commissioned 2D digital site survey dataset. For this dataset from WDDM, the results obtained from the 3D data and the 2D data were similar, the main difference being that more numerous, smaller probable hazards were prognosed by the 3D data. After undertaking this investigation and following an independent review of the results, a recommendation was made to operate the 2000 WDDM drilling campaign using hazard prognosis from the conventional 3D data, i.e. not to acquire well-specific, new digital site surveys. This recommendation was followed and five exploration wells were drilled in 2000 with no specific, digital site survey data being acquired.No safety, operational or environmental implications were encountered as a result of this replacement and significant operational savings accrued to the operating partnership.

Far-field effects of Eastern Mediterranean earthquakes in Lower Egypt

In this note we examine the decay of intensity with distance of earthquakesoriginating in the southern part of the Aegean, offshore Egypt and in theEastern Mediterranean regions, events chiefly with epicentres at sea, whichhave caused concern and occasionally some damage in Lower Egypt, particularlyin Cairo. Also we derive an empirical formula for the assessment of thesurface-wave magnitude of crustal and intermediate depth earthquakes in theregion.

Imaging submarine channels in the western Nile Delta and interpreting their paleohydraulic characteristics from 3-D seismic

Predicting sand distribution and reservoir presence is a major exploration risk in the Nile Delta offshore Egypt. However, integrating state-of-the-art technologies including 3-D seismic reflection surveys, seismic attributes, amplitude extractions, and coherency techniques can reduce this risk through recognition and more accurate mapping of submarine valleys and channel complexes. In addition, identification of sediment input points and pathways may result in more accurate interpretations of sand distribution patterns.

Multiphase Flowmeter Successfully Measures Three-Phase Flow at Extremely High Gas-Volume Fractions—Gulf of Suez, Egypt

Summary A multiphase flowmeter (MPFM) installed in offshore Egypt has accurately measured three-phase flow in extremely gassy flow conditions. The meter is completely nonintrusive, with no moving parts, requires no flow mixing before measurement, and has no bypass loop to remove gas before multiphase measurement. Flow regimes observed during the field test of this meter ranged from severe slugging to annular flow caused by the dynamics of gas-lift gas in the production stream. Average gas-volume fraction ranged from 93 to 98% during tests conducted on seven wells. The meter was installed in the Gulf of Suez on a well protector platform in the Gulf of Suez Petroleum Co. (Gupco) October field, and was placed in series with a test separator located on a nearby production platform. Wells were individually tested with flow conditions ranging from 1,300 to 4,700 B/D fluid, 2.4 to 3.9 MMscf/D of gas), and water cuts from 1 to 52%. The meter is capable of measuring water cuts up to 100%. Production was routed through both the MPFM and the test separator simultaneously as wells flowed with the assistance of gas-lift gas. The MPFM measured gas and liquid rates to within ± 10% of test-separator reference measurement flow rates, and accomplished this at gas-volume fractions from 93 to 96%. At higher gas-volume fractions up to 98%, accuracy deteriorated but the meter continued to provide repeatable results.

The Red Sea — Gulf of Aden: re-assessment of hydrocarbon potential

The results and conclusions of the UNDP/World Bank Red Sea — Gulf of Aden Regional Hydrocarbons Study Project (June 1989 – January 1992) are summarized. These derive from detailed examination of pooled public sector data provided to the project by the participating bordering states in the region; these included samples and logs from about 56 wells drilled in the two basins (out of a total of 71) and about 30 000 line km of reflection seismic data (selected from 110 000 km available). Well logs were digitized and correlated, and basinwide biostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental studies, source rock organic richness, quality and maturity studies and sedimentological analyses studies were performed by contracted specialist staff in the UK and France. These were integrated with basinwide seismic structural and isopach mapping for selected regional reflectors/intervals by national task forces in Cairo under project supervision; academically acquired crustal seismic and other geophysical data and oil industry velocity and other borehole data were also integrated for the Red Sea. Modelling utilizing recently acquired geophysical data indicates crustal asymmetry for the Red Sea rift with oceanic crust of pull-apart basin type flooring some portions of offshore Egypt and Sudan on the west and stretched continental crust underlying the eastern Arabian flank. These interpretations furthermore suggest that sinistral strike-slip processes controlled the initial break up of the Arabian plate, shaping the African flank as a sharp plate boundary; similar processes appear to have initially shaped the Somalia flank of the Gulf of Aden rift. Only later did true seafloor spreading propagate; in the eastern Gulf of Aden 10–12 Ma, about <5 Ma in the western Gulf of Aden, Afar and the southern/central Red Sea. Biostratigraphic work shows that deep subsidence and ocean water inundation commenced in the late Middle Oligocene in the Gulf of Aden, in the Late Oligocene in the southern Red Sea and in the Early Miocene in the Central Red Sea/Gulf of Suez. A regional lithostratigraphic nomenclature scheme for the Miocene-Recent syn- and post-rift Red Sea successions keyed to detailed biostratigraphical distribution charts and microfaunal assemblage characteristics was erected, tied to the well documented and understood petroliferous Gulf of Suez basin scheme; this allows facies variations within the basin to be compared and allows consistent interpretation and correlations across the basin to which local informal nomenclature can be related. Pre-rift (pre-Oligocene) marine sediments are present in most of the Gulf of Aden (Jurassic-Eocene) but only incompletely on the basin margins in the Red Sea (Jurassic in the south, Upper Cretaceous — Early Palaeogene in the north). Significant pre-rift oil/gas prone Upper Jurassic, Cretaceous and Palaeogene source rocks occur in Gulf of Aden sub-basins initiated by Late Jurassic — Early Cretaceous tensional tectonics, with maturity levels ranging from early-late to post-mature, whereas early synrift source rocks are generally immature. In the Red Sea good quality pre-rift source rocks outcrop in the north and south but are probably overmature for oil in the basin except in the extreme south (if present). Good syn-, pre- and post-salt and post-rift source levels occur throughout the basin but in the central/southern sectors only the post-salt remains within the oil window because of high geothermal gradients. Both basins are little explored. Attractive pre-rift Jurassic-Eocene exploration plays in rotated fault and horst blocks in predominantly carbonate but subordinate sandstone reservoirs are present in the Gulf of Aden (confirmed by an important undeveloped Eocene light oil discovery in offshore Yemen) with subordinate synrift potential where maturity is established. Relative continental shelf narrowness is economically limiting, but wider sectors occur. In the Red Sea the principal exploration plays are in Miocene synrift, pre- and post-salt successions. Rotated fault blocks occur in the pre-salt, but maturity for oil in the deeper levels is restricted to the northern sector. These levels in the central and southern sectors are overmature except in the southernmost portion but excellent potential exists in the synrift post-salt and early post-rift sequences with a number of attractive play types. Reservoirs for synrift plays are mainly sandstones and potential is confirmed by several undeveloped gas and condensate discoveries and numerous oil seepages throughout the basin; relatively wide continental shelves occur in the south and along much of the eastern flank.

3D PRESTACK DEPTH MIGRATION IN THE GULF OF SUEZ: A CASE HISTORY1

AbstractSeismic reflection data in the southern Gulf of Suez, offshore Egypt, are commonly severely affected by shallow velocity inhomogeneities in the form of diapiric salt bodies, and depth migration techniques must be used in order to image the presalt structure correctly. Frequently the diapir and the underlying prospective structure are three dimensional rather than two dimensional and thus require 3D techniques to resolve them. In addition, the severity of the problem is sometimes such that the common midpoint (CMP) stack assumptions are invalid and prestack depth migration is therefore required.In 1990, Unocal developed a practical 3D prestack depth‐migration scheme, which was applied to a data set in the Gulf of Suez. The prospect was subsequently drilled and results proved the effectiveness of the technique.This paper describes the use of the technique in the form of a case history. It is expected that the technique will be routinely used to solve similar problems.

THE RED SEA ‐ GULF OF ADEN: RE‐ASSESSMENT OF HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL Abstract†

THE results and conclusions of the UNDP/World Bank Red Sea ‐ Gulf of Aden Regional Hydrocarbons Study Project (June. 1989‐January, 1992) are summarised. These results were derived from detailed examination of pooled public‐sector date provided to the project by the participating bordering states in the region; these included samples and logs from ca. 56 wells drilled in the two basins (out of a total of 71 wells). and some 30,000 line‐kms of reflection seismic (out of 110.000 km available). well‐logs were digitised and correlated, and basin‐wide biostratigraphic, lithostratigraphic and paleoenvironmental studies, source‐rock organic richness. quality and maturity studies and sedimentological analyses were performed by contracted specialist staff in UK and France, and integrated with basin‐wide seismic structural and isopach mapping for selected regional reflectors/intervals by national task forces in Cairo under project supervision: academically‐derived crustal seismic and other geophysical data, and supervision; academically‐derived crustal seismic and other geophysical data, and industrially‐derived velocity and other borehole data were also integrated for the Red‐Sea.Modelling, utilising recently‐acquired geophysical data, indicates crustal asymmetry for the Red sea rift, with oceanic crust of pull‐apart basin type flooring some portions of offshore Egypt and Sudan on the west, and stretched continental crust underlying the eastern Arabian flank. These results suggest that sinistral strike‐slip processes controlled the intial break‐up of the Arabian Plate shaping the African flank as a sharp plate boundary,. Similar processes appear to have initially shaped the Somalia flank of the Gulf of Aden Rift. Only later did true sea‐floor spreading propagate: 10–12 million years age in the eastern Gulf of Aden; and &lt;ca.5 million years age in the western Gulf of Aden, Afar and the southern/central Red Sea. Biostratigraphic work shows deep subsidence and ocean‐water inundation commenced in the late middle Oligocene in the Gulf of Aden, in the late Oligocene in the southern Red Sea, and in the early Miocene in the central Red Sea/Gulf of suez.

PULL‐APART EVOLUTION OF THE RED SEA

The Authors have deduced from seismic, gravity and other geophysical data that strike‐slip processes mainly controlled the early break‐up stages of the Arabian Plate from Africa, initiating the Red Sea Rift. Sea‐floor spreading is only 5 million yrs old, and is still limited in the central and parts of the southern Red Sea. The area was a zone of structural weakness as early as 600 million yrs ago, and was reactivated in the late Oligocene with intense magmatic activity and the development of a continental rift.Wrench‐faulting shaped most of its western flank as a sharp plate boundary, while the eastern flank is floored by stretched continental crust due to uplifting and shifting of Arabia from Africa. Wrench‐faulting was controlled by pre‐existing fault systems, such as the Najd Shear System, the Central African Fault Zone, or the Onib‐Hamisana and Baraka sutures. As a consequence, both wrench‐faulted transtensional and transpressional areas developed. Transtensional basins are evident offshore Egypt, the Sudan and the Gulf of Aqaba; while the island of Zabargad is a remnant transpressional area.With Arabia as the “mobile” plate and Africa relatively “stable”, the eastern Red Sea flank was formed through stretching, thinning and diffuse extension, and is floored by attenuated continental crust, thus producing the asymmetry observed in seismic sections between the eastern and western flanks of the Red Sea Rift. The Dead Sea strike‐slip fault only experienced intense deformation during the last 14 million yrs. Plate motion was oblique to the initial orientation of the basin, and could no longer be accommodated by the opening of the Gulf of Suez; the en échelon distribution of gravity and magnetic anomalies as well as the high heat‐flow fields recorded in the northern Red Sea are Gulf of Aqaba oriented due to this process. Similarly, the thinned continental crust between Yemen and Ethiopia is affected by shear‐faults that displace the volcanic centres to the east.The bathymetry reflects the tectonic processes described above, and the mineralisation in the metalliferous “deeps” is tied either to Recent sea‐floor spreading centres or to the en‐échelon distributed fractures along the Red Sea flanks. Sedimentary basins, aligned along the stretched continental, flanks of the Red Sea, are important for oil and gas exploration.