Off-task Behavior Research Articles

Impact of MindUP on elementary school students’ classroom behaviors: A single-case design pilot study

ObjectivesMindUP is a mindfulness-based social-emotional learning program designed for implementation by teachers in school settings. The purpose of this pilot study is to examine whether MindUP can effectively improve the classroom conduct of students with behavioral challenges in general education classrooms. Study hypotheses are: after receiving the intervention, students will demonstrate (a) more frequent positive classroom behaviors including both active and passive on-task behaviors, and (b) less frequent negative classroom behaviors including both disruptive off-task behaviors and non-disruptive off-task behaviors. MethodsThis study used a single-case design (A-B design). Primary data collection was conducted through direct behavioral observation of 11 5th-grade students in their natural classroom environment. Treatment outcomes included positive classroom behaviors (active on-task behaviors and passive on-task behaviors) and negative classroom behaviors (disruptive off-task behaviors and non-disruptive off-task behaviors). Visual analysis, percentage of non-overlapping data analysis, and multilevel analysis were conducted to examine treatment effects. ResultsAnalyses results consistently showed changes in passive on-task behaviors and non-disruptive off-task behaviors in the expected direction—an increase in passive on-task behaviors and a decrease in non-disruptive off-task behaviors. However, contrary to the hypothesis, active on-task behaviors decreased during the intervention and follow-up phases. No significant changes in disruptive off-task behaviors were found. ConclusionsMindUP showed promise in effectively increasing elementary school students’ passive on-task behaviors and decreasing non-disruptive off-task behaviors. However, it demonstrated an unexpected effect on active on-task behaviors and no effect on disruptive off-task behaviors. Implications for practice and future research are provided.

Service-learning experiences for pre-service teachers: cultural competency and behavior management challenges when working with a diverse low-income community

ABSTRACT Background Service-learning is an approach in teacher education to expose pre-service teachers (PSTs) to experiences they will encounter when they enter the profession. During these service-learning experiences, PSTs experience issues related to behavior. K-12 students are increasingly diverse, and teachers and schools must adapt to meet their needs. Purpose This study examined how PSTs described issues related to behavior management and issues of culture when participating in a service-learning program in a low-income community. Methods This study employed a case study approach to investigate PST’s experiences conducting an afterschool program in a diverse low-socioeconomic area. Nine PSTs delivered the REACH program at an elementary school and met twice per week for two hours each day over the academic year. Session activities related to literacy development, fitness, nutrition, and character development. The REACH approach was grounded in Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility (Hellison 2003. “Teaching Personal and Social Responsibility in Physical Education.” In Student Learning in Physical Education: Applying Research to Enhance Instruction, edited by S. J. Silverman, and C. D. Ennis, 241–254. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics) and Positive Youth Development (Holt et al. 2017. “A Grounded Theory of Positive Youth Development Through Sport Based on Results from a Qualitative Meta-Study.” International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 10: 1–49). Data were collected via journals and semi-structured interviews. Open and axial coding techniques were used for data analysis. Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura 1986. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall) was used as a theoretical framework. Findings Two main themes emerged; the first relates to how PSTs navigated issues of behavior management. Specifically, the problems that PSTs had navigating off-task behaviors, learning through trial and error, and what students do and say are not always rational to adults. The second main theme describes how PSTs negotiated working at a low-income school. This theme includes insight into PSTs’ personal growth as well as how they navigated issues of cultural competence. Discussion PSTs conveyed many issues including gaining and maintaining student attention, participation levels, and dealing with off-task behaviors. Even though the PSTs had learned positive behavior management techniques, they used exercise as punishment because students asked for it. Listening to students helped PSTs in understanding their students’ needs and how they perceive their environment. Additionally, cultural biases, similarities, and differences between PSTs and the students were discussed and how that might have impacted the learning environment. Language, specifically not being able to speak Spanish, was a barrier but did not affect PSTs’ ability to develop relationships with their students. Conclusions This study provides a greater understanding of the social dynamic between service providers and recipients during service-learning opportunities. Findings indicate that additional attention needs to be afforded to the development of behavior management skills in PSTs. This includes providing structured hands-on experiences for PSTs to navigate alternate behavior management strategies. Lastly, PSTs should be purposely exposed to teaching children from cultures and experiences different than their own, to help develop culturally responsible teachers.

Physically active learning in preschoolers: Improved self-regulation, comparable quantity estimation

Providing physical activity during the school day may mitigate increasingly sedentary lifestyles among children. Young children may be susceptible to interference during learning and consolidation when performing physical activity concurrently with academic instruction. Preschoolers (N=72, mean age 5.1 ± 0.8 years, 50% female) completed a quantity estimation task before, following, and one week after engaging in either a 20-min physically active or sedentary lesson. Physical activity intensity and volume were measured using heart rate and pedometer step counts, respectively. Off-task behavior was recorded prior to and following the lesson. Children exhibited similar learning and retention, but an added benefit of physically active lessons was a 1900% step increase and a 58% reduction in off-task behavior. Providing physically active lessons instead of sitting for extended periods of time in early childhood classrooms reduces sedentary behavior and improves self-regulation while not interfering with educational outcomes.

The Decorated Learning Environment: Simply Noise or an Opportunity for Incidental Learning?

Author(s): Godwin, Karrie E.; Kaur, Freya | Abstract: Maintaining attention during instruction is challenging as children face various sources of distraction (peers, announcements, noise) as well as competition from the visual environment itself. Prior studies found decorated environments promote off-task behavior and reduce learning. Additionally, many classroom displays are not relevant to ongoing instruction. This raises the possibility that increasing alignment between displays and instructional content may afford opportunities for incidental learning, reducing the detrimental effects of environmental off-task behavior. To investigate this possibility, participants completed a lesson in which alignment between the lesson content and displays was manipulated (relevant, educational but irrelevant, or no displays). Attention to the lesson and learning gains for content presented in the lesson and/or displays were measured. Results suggest younger children’s learning can benefit from displays that reinforce the lesson content. However, there was no evidence of incidental learning from displays without additional lesson support. Implications for classroom design are discussed.

Perilaku Siswa yang Tidak Dikehendaki (Off Task Behavior) dan Penanganan Konselor

The purpose of this research was to describe the forms, causes, counselor handling, and counselor in dealing with barriers off-task behavior of a student in Ash - Shidiiqi Islamic Primary School Jambi. The methods used to collect the data are interviews, observation, and documentation. The subject in this research is the headmaster, 2 (two) counselors, 7 (seven) teachers, 3 (three) subject teachers, and 7 (seven) students who have off-task behavior. The results showed that the off-task behavior of students going on Ash - Shidiiqi Islamic Primary School Jambi, around the class, talking with friends, play stationery such as pen, pencil, eraser, or ruler, play or throw paper, do not pay attention to the teacher’s explanation, but the head on the table, make a noise, climbed to the top of the seat, out of the class, joking with friends, drawing on paper, scribble table, opened other textbooks, do homework,. The causes of student conduct off-task behavior consist of internal factors and external factors. Internal factors include the adaptation of school and difficulty in learning. While external factors that underlie the emergence of off-task behavior of the student is the influence of friends and lack of attention from the teacher. There are various kinds of treatment used by a counselor, which are reprimand or warned by giving advice, in addition to dealing with off-task behavior counselor collaborate with classroom teachers and subject teachers to apply operant conditioning by using reinforcement and punishment techniques. Barriers faced counselor is limited provision of counseling.

The Effect of Student Off-Task Behaviors on High School English Language Teachers Burnout

The main purpose of the study is to identify particular student misbehaviors in English language courses in high schools that lead to English language teachers’ bournout. The data were collected through teacher interview and a questionnaire. The participants involved 12 teachers of English language in total who work at two different high schools. The study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase of the study, an open-ended interview was conducted with 4 teachers from the first high school. A content analysis was carried out in order to find out the misbehaviors teachers mentioned during the interviews. In the second phase of the study, a questionnaire including 12 misbehaviors that were mentioned by the first group of teachers was administered to 8 teachers from the second high school. These teachers were asked to rate the frequency of their burnout based on these misbehaviors. The correlational results revealed 9 specific misbehaviors that cause English language high school teachers feel burnout. The results indicated that certain misbehaviors in the classroom make high school English language teachers feel overwhelmed. It was concluded that particular student misbehaviors are common in English classes in high schools, and these misbehaviors can cause English language teachers lose their motivation.

Using Response Interruption and Redirection to Promote On-Task Behaviors in Physical Education and Physical Activity

Despite the large body of literature and advocacy for evidence-based behavior management practices when working with children, explicit steps and strategies for implementing such practices are less common. This may be a barrier for practitioners working with children with disabilities and unique behavioral needs within physical education and other physical activity settings. This article introduces response interruption and redirection within physical education and physical activity settings and provides practical steps and strategies for how teachers and other practitioners can redirect a variety of off-task behaviors.

Can You Only Diagnose What You Know? The Relation Between Teachers’ Self-Regulation of Learning Concepts and Their Assessment of Students’ Self-Regulation

Self-regulation of learning (SRL) positively affects achievement and motivation. Therefore, teachers are supposed to foster students‘ SRL by providing them with strategies. However, two preconditions have to be met: teachers need to diagnose their students‘ SRL to take instructional decisions about promoting SRL. To this end, teachers need knowledge about SRL to know what to diagnose. Only little research has investigated teachers’ knowledge about SRL and its assessment yet. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify teachers’ conceptions about SRL, to investigate their ideas about how to diagnose their students’ SRL, and to test relationships between both. To this end, we developed two systematic coding schemes to analyze the conceptions about SRL and the ideas about assessing SRL in the classroom among a sample of 205 teachers. The coding schemes for teachers’ open answers were developed based on models about SRL and were extended by deriving codes from the empirical data, and produced satisfying interrater reliability (conceptions about SRL: κ= .85, SE = .03; ideas about assessing SRL: κ= .63, SE = .05). The results showed that many teachers did not refer to any regulation procedure at all and described SRL mainly as student autonomy and self-directedness. Only few teachers had a comprehensive conception of the entire SRL cycle. We identified three patterns of teachers’ conceptualizations of SRL: a motivation-oriented, an autonomy-oriented, and a regulation-oriented conceptualization of SRL. Regarding teachers’ ideas about assessing their students’ SRL, teachers mainly focused on cues that are not diagnostic of SRL. Yet, many teachers knew about portfolios to register SRL among students. Finally, our results suggest that, partly, teachers’ ideas about assessing SRL varied as a function of their SRL concept: teachers with an autonomy-oriented conceptualization of SRL were more likely to use cues that are not diagnostic of SRL, such as unsystematic observation or off-task behavior. The results provide insights into teachers‘ conceptions of SRL and of its assessment. Implications for future research in the field of SRL will be drawn; in particular, about how to support teachers in diagnosing and fostering SR among their students.

An ontology of off-task behavior in a number activity: The body, space-time, and mathematics

This article aims to interrogate the Cartesian rationality determining current early childhood mathematics by highlighting the irrational aspect of mathematics learning, which is usually underemphasized and even devalued by the dominant discourse. Using Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of refrain as the method, the article explores the unfolding emergence of a child’s off-task behavior in a number activity as it conceptualizes the child’s body in relation to its surroundings. The article also explores how this conceptualization of off-task behavior helps to rethink mathematical ability and conceptual construction in responding to and elaborating on research on embodied mathematics. Based on these explorations, the article hopes to contribute a strategy for the vision of adopting a more democratic manner in mathematics learning.

“I Didn’t Know I Could do That!” Student and Teacher Perceptions of an Independent Choral Music Learning Project

Through the use of an intrinsic case study, I investigated student and teacher perceptions of a collaborative and student-directed music learning approach in a high school choral classroom. Students ( N = 29) in a beginning high school choir were asked to choose and learn a piece of repertoire without substantive input or help from the choral teacher. Results indicated that students completed this project successfully and achieved a well-received public performance of the piece. Students reported a strong sense of accomplishment as well as increased collaboration skills and opportunities to apply their music knowledge. Although students and teacher acknowledged some social conflicts and relatively high levels of social loafing and off-task behavior during this project, these challenges did not seem to reduce the overall perception of success.

Social Anxiety Disorder and Social Support Behavior in Friendships

Relationship quality is a strong predictor of health outcomes, and individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD) report increased interpersonal impairment. However, there are few studies testing the effect of SAD on friendships and it is thus unclear whether there are behavioral differences that distinguish friendships in which a target individual has SAD from friendships in which the target individual does not have SAD. We tested for differences in the provision and receipt of support behaviors as a function of having a SAD diagnosis and accounting for comorbid depressive symptoms. Participants with SAD (n = 90) and their friends engaged in support conversations that were coded using the Social Support Interaction Coding System. Structural equation modeling revealed some differences between participants and friends when accounting for depression. Specifically, friends of participants with SAD and comorbid depression engaged in fewer positive helper behaviors than the friends of participants who did not have SAD or comorbid depression. Additionally, dyads in which the primary participant had SAD engaged in more off-task behaviors. Results suggest that SAD does not result in global interpersonal impairment, but that receipt of positive support behaviors from friends may differ as a function of SAD and comorbid depression. Interpersonal interventions aimed at increasing adaptive friendships and aspects of CBT that target subtle avoidance (e.g., safety behaviors) may be useful in facilitating more satisfactory relationships for these individuals.

Students’ observed engagement in lessons, instructional activities, and learning experiences

In order to expand previous intraindividual studies of student engagement we investigated students' observed engagement (i.e., on- and off-task behaviour), instructional activities (i.e., teacher-led whole class, individual work, pair-work, student-teacher interaction, assessment, and ”other”), and self-reported learning experiences (cognitive engagement, difficulty, competence, emotional engagement, positive and negative emotions), within lessons during one calendar week. Eighteen fourth and fifth grade target students (Mage=10.1, SD=0.44) were observed every 30 sec during two to four lessons each day for five school days (engagement and instructional activities), on average 66.05 times per lesson (SD=19.16, Range=15-80, nobs=14,994) between 9-18 lessons during a week. Simultaneously, students provided 1-3 electronic questionnaire self-reports per lesson (Mself_report=35.1, SD=12.6, Range=19-52, nself_report=631). We regressed observed engagement (0 = off-task, 1 = on-task) on self-reported learning experiences using 3-level (time-points nested in lessons, nested in students) Bayesian logistic regression models in brms. Observed engagement diminished during lessons, and was predicted by higher cognitive engagement, and instructional activities. As compared to teacher-led instruction, engagement was higher during individual tasks, teacher-supported tasks, and assessments. Overall self-reported and observed engagement within lessons converged, supporting their use in intraindividual research.

Relationships Between Systematically Observed Movement Integration and Classroom Management in Elementary Schools

Movement integration (MI), which involves incorporating physical activity into regular classroom time, is a research-supported strategy to reduce off-task behavior and support academic performance. However, teachers’ rate of adopting MI has been slow. Teachers are more likely to adopt MI if they perceive it as compatible with their current teaching practices. Accordingly, this study examined relationships between systematically observed MI and other evidence-based classroom management practices in elementary schools. Participants were classroom teachers ( n = 12) and their students ( n = 229). Classroom observations were conducted using the System for Observing Student Movement in Academic Routines and Transitions (SOSMART) and the Brief Classroom Interaction Observation–Revised (BCIO-R). Correlational analyses showed that MI was positively associated with effective instructional management and proactive management strategies, and negatively associated with reactive management strategies and disruptive student behavior. This study demonstrated that MI and other established classroom management practices are co-occurring.

Implementing blended-problem based learning through Google classroom in biology learning

Information technology is determinant factor in creating learning environment among the 21st Century generation. This qualitative descriptive research aimed to obtain theoretical views and empirical evidences of the blended-problem based learning (PBL) application. The data were collected through non-test technique through observation. The observations were made to analyze student activities in each step of the blended-PBL. In addition, the observations were also constructed to get a view of students' off-task behaviors during learning. The results of this study indicated that Google Classroom-assisted blended-PBL was well implemented in Biology learning. The all students actively participated in searching for information related to the topics covered as well as exhibiting off-task behavior. Based on the findings in this study it can be concluded that blended-PBL can be implemented as an alternative model for learning Biology in the 21st Century.

The impact of trace data and motivational self-reports in a game-based learning environment

Game-based learning environments (GBLEs) are increasingly present in school settings, primarily because they have been associated with improved academic and motivational outcomes. However, recent research found that GBLEs were no more motivational than conventional instructional methods. Yet, the disproportionate use of self-report measures may not be accurately representing children's motivation in these contexts. For this reason, this study sought to compare fifth-grade children's motivational self-reports with trace measures in their ability to predict both performance and content learning in Crystal Island - Uncharted Discovery, a science-based GBLE. Self-report measures included achievement goals and situational interest; and, trace data included two measures of in-game engagement and one measure of disengagement behaviors. Results revealed that self-reported achievement goals and interest failed to significantly predict off-task behavior and accounted for only 3% and 5% of the variance, respectively, in predicting the two measures of in-game engagement. Most importantly, self-reported achievement goals and interest were not as effective as in-game trace behaviors in predicting performance and science content learning. Findings reinforce the importance of identifying and utilizing trace measures that represent indicators of performance and learning, while also considering the limitations of using self-report measures with children in GBLEs.

Off-task behavior in kindergarten: Relations to executive function and academic achievement.

Behavioral self-regulation supports young children’s learning and is a strong predictor of later academic achievement. The capacity to manage one’s attention and control one’s behavior is commonly measured via direct assessments of executive function (EF). However, to understand how EF skills contribute to academic achievement, it is helpful to investigate how EF manifests in the classroom context and in children’s overt behavior. The current study observed 172 kindergarteners for a single school day and captured the total proportion of class time children were off-task in the classroom. This behavior was further classified into specific subtypes to assess whether these categorizations differentially predicted components of EF and academic achievement in first grade. Results indicated that children with lower response inhibition spent statistically significantly more time in one type of off-task behavior (i.e., off-task actively engaging with other materials), and children with lower working memory spent significantly more time in another type of off-task behavior (i.e., off-task passively disengaged). Higher proportion of class time spent off-task passively disengaged in kindergarten further statistically significantly predicted fewer gains in reading comprehension in first grade. These findings illustrate the utility of measuring children’s EF in a classroom context, and how fine-grained observation systems can shed light on the specific classroom and child processes that influence learning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved)

Effects of using a variety of kinesthetic classroom equipment on elementary students’ on-task behaviour: a pilot study

The ability for students to maintain attention to classroom instruction is a critical factor for learning because loss of instructional time due to off-task behaviour has negative impacts on academic achievement. Early studies suggest that use of kinesthetic equipment in place of traditional seating in classrooms can improve student on-task behaviour. To date, however, limitations of the kinesthetic classroom research literature include small sample sizes, often without controls, use of a single equipment type (e.g. standing desks or exercise balls) and lack of objective measures of student on-task behaviour. We report a pilot study of the impact of using a variety of kinesthetic equipment in elementary classrooms on objectively-measured student on-task behaviour.

Outcomes of School-Home Intervention for Attention and Behavior Problems: Teacher Adherence Matters.

This study evaluated the effects of teacher adherence to behavioral treatment on student outcomes. Eighty-four children (ages 7-11) completed a 12-week, collaborative school-home behavioral intervention designed for youth with significant attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and impairment. Teacher adherence was assessed via school mental health provider (SMHP) ratings and Daily Report Card (DRC) implementation. Pre- and post-treatment outcomes included parent and teacher ratings of organizational skills and problem behaviors, observational measures of classroom task engagement and off task behaviors and report card standard grades. Using multi-level models to account for clustering by school, teacher adherence rated by SMHPs predicted improvement across teacher- and parent-rated organizational skills, parent-rated problem behaviors, and classroom observations of task engagement and off-task behavior. Higher rates of DRC implementation only predicted improvements in parent-rated organizational skills; percentage of days parents signed the DRC only predicted teacher-rated improvement in organizational skills. Post-hoc analyses indicated that teacher adherence and child success with academic targets on the DRC during the first month predicted parent-rated improvement in organizational skills. These results suggest that teacher adherence, particularly when rated by SMHPs, is an important predictor of positive treatment outcomes across both school and home settings. Future research is needed to better understand methods for measuring and optimizing teacher adherence to classroom behavioral interventions.

Preschoolers exhibit greater on-task behavior following physically active lessons on the approximate number system.

To determine how the dual-task nature of incorporating physical activity with instructional activities immediately impacts acuity of the approximate number system and on-task behavior in preschoolers. Using a randomized within-participants repeated-measures crossover design, 51 children completed an approximate number system task before and after either 20-min of physically active instruction corresponding to 38% heart rate reserve (HRR; light-to-moderate intensity) or conventional sedentary instruction at corresponding to 21% HRR (very light intensity). Findings revealed that preschool-aged children exhibited similar learning and greater on-task behavior following a single bout of physically active instruction relative to conventional sedentary instruction. Overall, preschoolers accrued 931.3±8.2 more steps and an additional 9minutes at or above light-intensity activity during the physically active instruction. Accordingly, these findings suggest that the dual-task nature of physically active learning does not compromise learning, reduces the need for redirecting off-task behavior, and ultimately allows children to avoid sedentary behavior in educational contexts.

Dietary Quality May Play a Role in Classroom Engagement

Abstract Objectives Classroom time on task (TOT) is positively associated with academic performance. Studies have found a relationship between dietary intake and cognitive performance. This study aimed to examine the association of dietary quality with TOT. Methods Data were obtained from 3rd–5th grade students participating in TX Sprouts—a large, school-based gardening, nutrition, and cooking randomized controlled trial. Measures collected included: height, weight, and body composition via bioelectrical impedance. We assessed dietary intake via two, 24-hr dietary recalls, TOT via four, 15-min direct observations sessions, and dietary quality using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI-2015). On-task behavior was defined as any verbal or physical behavior that followed the classroom rules or followed instructions given by the teacher. Off-task behavior was defined as any actions whereby a student was disengaged or distracted from the assigned task. Multilevel mixed-effects modeling was used to determine the association of HEI on TOT, controlling for school, class, sex, grade level, child ethnicity/race, BMI category, economically disadvantage status, and day of the week. Results The analytic sample was comprised of 478 participants (mean age 9.4 years; 53.0% male; 59.2% Hispanic; 54.2% normal weight; 64.5% FRL). Students with higher TOT scores consumed more total vegetables (b = 1.60, SE = 0.35, P < 0.01), more seafood and plant proteins (b = 0.85, SE = 0.26, P < 0.01), and more fatty acids (b = 0.72, SE = 0.17, P < 0.01) when compared to their counterparts. Similarly, those with higher TOT scores consumed less sodium (b = 0.55, SE = 0.16, P < 0.01), less refined grains (b = 0.32, SE = 0.14, P < 0.05), less added sugar (b = 1.15, SE = 0.19, P < 0.01), and less saturated fats (b = 0.35, SE = 0.15, P < 0.05) when compared to other students. Conclusions Findings suggest a link between dietary quality and TOT in 3rd–5th grade students. Small incremental changes in dietary quality could have implications for increased academic achievement and cognitive performance in low-income, 3rd–5th grade students. Funding Sources Supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant R01HL123865.