Off-grid Hybrid Energy Research Articles

Techno-economic analysis and optimization of a hybrid solar-wind-biomass-battery framework for the electrification of a remote area: A case study

An off-grid hybrid energy framework on the basis of wind turbines and photovoltaic panels as the primary source of energy and a biogas generator and energy storage unit as a back-up system, was considered for clean energy generation in a rural area in Semnan, Iran. This study was aimed at designing an optimized hybrid renewable framework with minimal costs and CO2 emissions and highest reliability, utilizing comprehensive modeling based on two energy management strategies. The decision-making variables in this work were the type and number of wind turbines, number of storage units, capacity of solar panels, and the capacity of biogas generator. Then variations in turbine model, inflation rate and biofuel prices and their effect on the optimal design of the hybrid framework was investigated in a range of uncertainties (0, 1, and 2.5 %). Additionally, the powerplant emissions penalty cost rate was also considered. Eventually, the optimal hybrid frameworks were economically and environmentally compared with a stand-alone diesel generator. Optimization results confirmed the superiority of the proposed hybrid wind-solar-biomass-battery system in comparison with other investigated systems. The cost of energy for the optimal design including biogas generator (22 kW), photovoltaic panels (30.7 kW), a 10 kW wind turbine, 11 batteries and an inverter (15.1 kW), while considering the inflation rate of 10 % and the uncertainty rate of 0 %, is equal to 0.201 $/kWh. Additionally, the selected optimal design emitted 97 % less CO2 annually, in comparison with the similarly-sized diesel-based energy system.

A mathematical model of an off-grid hybrid energy system utilizing the reversible solid oxide fuel cell

Abstract The current energy transition focuses on decentralizing energy systems by implementing alternative energy sources. Integrating distributed energy sources into functional hybrid energy systems has proven to be a difficult task. To solve this problem, it is important to conduct an in-depth analysis of the energy system through the preparation of a mathematical model. The study aims to model and simulate the operation of an off-grid self-sustainable energy storage system for single-family household use by utilizing solid oxide technology. The proposed system consists of photovoltaic modules and an energy storage system including batteries, reversible solid oxide fuel cells, and hydrogen storage tanks. To integrate these energy resources into one system, an energy management system, in which the solid oxide stack is used as a backup generator or a hydrogen production device, is implemented. Finally, a numerical simulation of the system’s operation is run to estimate the system’s performance over a one-year time period. The prepared model can find many practical applications, such as optimizing system costs, environmental impact, or the energy management system.

Sustainable astronomy: A comparative life cycle assessment of off-grid hybrid energy systems to supply large telescopes

PurposeSupplying off-grid facilities such as astronomical observatories with renewable energy–based systems (RES) instead of diesel generators can considerably reduce their environmental impact. However, RES require oversized capacities to counter intermittency and comply with reliability requirements, hence shifting the environmental impact from operation to construction phase. We assess whether 100% RES scenarios are favorable from an environmental point of view and discuss the trade-offs in systems with backup fossil generators versus 100% renewable ones.MethodsIn this comparative life cycle assessment (LCA), we study various RES supply systems to power a new telescope in the Atacama Desert, Chile. We compare six setups, including 100% RES scenarios, namely, photovoltaics (PV) with batteries and hydrogen energy storage; high-renewable scenarios, with fossil fuel power generation next to RES and storage; and a system combining PV with diesel generation. We base system sizing on a techno-economical optimization for the start of operation in 2030. Foreground data stem from life cycle inventories of RES components since 2015 and 2030 electricity mix assumptions of production countries. We assess environmental impact in the categories climate change, mineral resource depletion, and water use.Results and discussionWe find that 100% RES and high-renewable scenarios result in emissions of 0.077–0.115 kg CO2e/kWh supplied, compared to 0.917 kg CO2e/kWh in the reference case with solely diesel generation. One hundred percent RES scenarios have a lower CO2e impact than high-renewable scenarios. However, the latter lower the mineral resource depletion and water use by about 27% compared to 100% RES scenarios. Applying hybrid energy storage systems increases the water use impact while reducing the mineral resource depletion.ConclusionsNone of the six energy systems we compared was clearly the best in all environmental impacts considered. Trade-offs must be taken when choosing an energy system to supply the prospective off-grid telescope in Chile. We find high-renewable systems with some fossil generation as the better option regarding power reliability, mineral resource depletion, and water use, while inducing slightly higher greenhouse gas emissions than the 100% RES scenarios. As remote research facilities and off-grid settlements today are mainly supplied by fossil fuels, we expect to motivate more multifaceted decisions for implementing larger shares of RES for these areas. To advance the LCA community in the field of energy systems, we should strive to incorporate temporal and regional realities into our life cycle inventories. To ease the path for upcoming studies, we publish this work’s inventories as detailed activity level datasets.

Multi-objective optimization and sustainable design: a performance comparison of metaheuristic algorithms used for on-grid and off-grid hybrid energy systems

Alternative energy sources are needed for a sustainable world due to rapidly increasing energy consumption, fossil fuels, and greenhouse gases worldwide. A hybrid renewable energy system (HRES) must be optimally dimensioned to be responsive to sudden load changes and cost-effective. In this study, the aim is to reduce the carbon emissions of a university campus by generating electricity from a hybrid energy production system with solar panels, wind turbine, a diesel generator, and battery components. On the university campus where the hybrid energy system will be installed, the ambient temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, and load demands have been recorded in our database. Optimization algorithms were used to select the power values of the system components to be installed using these data in an efficient and inexpensive manner according to the ambient conditions. For optimal sizing of HRES components, gray wolf optimizer combined with cuckoo search (GWOCS) technique was investigated using MATLAB/Simulink. In this way, it has been tried to increase their efficiency by combining current optimization techniques. The cornerstone of our optimization efforts for both on-grid and off-grid models pivots on a constellation of critical decision variables: the power harvested from wind turbines, the productivity of solar panels, the capacity of battery storage, and the power contribution of diesel generators. In our pursuit of minimizing the annual cost metric, we employ a tailor-made function, meticulously upholding an array of constraints, such as the quotient of renewable energy and the potential risk of power disruption. A robust energy management system is integral to our design, orchestrating the delicate power flow balance among micro-grid components—vital for satisfying energy demand. Upon analyzing the outcomes of the study, it is apparent that the proposed Scenario 1 HRES effectively utilizes solar and battery components within the off-grid model, surpassing the efficiency of four other hybrid scenarios under consideration. Regarding optimization processes, the off-grid model exhibits superior results with the implementation of the GWOCS algorithm, delivering faster and more reliable solutions relative to other methodologies. Conversely, the optimization of the on-grid model reaches its optimal performance with the application of the cuckoo search algorithm. A comprehensive comparison from both technical and economic view points suggests the on-grid model as the most feasible and suitable choice. Upon completion of the optimization process, the load demand is catered to by a combination of a 2963.827-kW solar panel, a 201.8896-kW battery, and an additional purchase of 821.9 MWh from the grid. Additionally, an energy surplus sale of 1379.8 MWh to the grid culminates in an annual cost of system (ACS) of 475782.8240 USD, a total net present cost of 4815520.2794 USD, and a levelized cost of energy of 0.12754 USD/kWh. Solar panels cover the entire system, and the renewable energy fraction is 100%.

Techno-economic-environmental analysis of off-grid hybrid energy systems using honey badger optimizer

Techno-economic-environmental analysis of off-grid hybrid energy systems using honey badger optimizer

Energy management and sizing of a stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system for community electricity, fresh water, and cooking gas demands of a remote island

Research into the off-grid hybrid energy system to provide reliable electricity to a remote community has extensively been done. However, simultaneous meeting electric, freshwater, and gas demands from the off-grid hybrid energy sources are very scarce in literature. Power- to-X (PtX) is gaining attention in recent days in the energy transition scenarios to generate green hydrogen, the primary product of the process as an energy carrier, which is deemed to replace conventional fuels to reach absolute carbon neutrality. In this study, renewable–based hybrid energy is developed to simultaneously meet the electricity, freshwater, and gas (cooking gas via methanation process) demands for a remote Island in Bangladesh. In this process, an energy management strategy has been developed to use the excess energy to generate both freshwater and the hydrogen, where hydrogen is then converted to natural gas via methanation process. The PV, wind turbine, diesel generator, battery, and fuel cell have been optimized using non-dominating sorting algorithm-II (NSGA-II) to offer reliable, cost-effective solutions of electricity, freshwater, and cooking gas for the end users. Results reported that the PV/WT/DG/Batt configuration has been found the most economic configuration with the lowest COE (0.1724 $/kWh) which is 9 % lower than PV/WT/Batt configuration which has the second lowest COE. The cost of water (COW) and cost of gas (COG) of the PV/WT/DG/Batt system are also the lowest among all the four configurations and have been found 1.185 $/m3 and 3.978 $/m3, respectively.

A multi-approach framework for developing feasible, viable, and sustainable hybrid energy systems in remote areas: The case of Con Dao island in Vietnam

In remote communities, hybrid energy systems are increasingly used to improve the reliability and renewability of power supply. The techno-economic analysis is often used to develop these promising energy systems, ignoring some performance indicators and environmental factors. This study proposes a multi-approach framework for developing operationally feasible, economically viable, and environmentally sustainable hybrid energy systems in remote areas. A case study is conducted on Con Dao Island in Vietnam to supply its electricity demand using six on-grid and off-grid hybrid energy systems. After finding the best techno-economic configurations of the six developed systems, they are subjected to multi-approach analysis and exhaustive comparison using a set of performance, economic, and environmental indicators. An off-grid hybrid energy system comprising photovoltaics, wind turbines, lead-acid batteries, and diesel generators has the lowest net present cost (109.7 million USD) to supply the predicted island's electricity consumption (with a total on-site electricity generation of 184.1 GWh/yr). However, this off-grid system indicates the highest excess energy fraction (55%), while the on-grid systems with the ability to export excess energy to the grid have no excess energy fraction. In terms of eco-friendliness, an on-grid hybrid energy system consisting of a high level of photovoltaics and wind turbines shows the best results, with a negative total environmental impact and CO2-eq emissions. This on-grid system shows the best cost of energy (0.1 USD/kWh) with approximately 450% less total environmental impact than the best off-grid system investigated, offsetting about 48.2 kilotonnes of CO2-eq/yr by exporting net emission-free electricity. Overall, the proposed framework can assist decision-makers in finding feasible, viable, and sustainable hybrid energy systems.

Optimizing a Green and Sustainable Off-Grid Energy-System Design: A Real Case

In recent years, unquestionable warnings like the negative effects of CO2 emissions, the necessity of utilizing sustainable energy sources, and the rising demand for municipal electrification have been issued. Therefore, users are encouraged to provide off-grid and sustainable energy systems for their own homes and businesses, especially if they are located rurally and far from grids. Hence, this study aims to design an off-grid hybrid energy system, in order to minimize both the baseline cost of energy and the net current expenditure in the desired system. To construct such a system, wind generators (WG), photovoltaic arrays (PV), battery banks, and bi-directional converters are considered in the real case of a supermarket with a 20-year lifespan in Malmö, Sweden. Some significant assumptions, such as the usage of renewable energy resources only, electricity production close to the business location, and a maximum allowance of 0.1% unmet are incorporated. To optimize the considered problem, a particle swarm optimization (PSO) approach as developed to provide the load requirements and establish the number of WGs, PVs, and other equipment. Moreover, to verify the obtained results, the developed system was simulated using HOMER Pro software, and the results are compared and discussed. The results indicated that the designed hybrid energy system is able to perform completely off-grid, while satisfying 99.9% of the yearly electricity demand. The best results obtained by the proposed PSO offered 160, 5, and 350 PVs, WGs, and batteries, respectively, while the best solution found by the simulation method was the use of 384 PVs, 5 WGs, and 189 batteries for the considered off-grid system. This study contributes to decentralized local electrification by utilizing renewable energy sources that have the potential to revolutionize green energy solutions.

Multi-state optimal power dispatch model for power-to-power systems in off-grid hybrid energy systems: A case study in Spain

The electricity production from Renewable Energy (RE) in isolated locations requires long-term energy storage systems. To that end, Hybrid Energy Storage Systems (HESS), through a combination of hydrogen and batteries, can benefit from the different advantages of both technologies. This paper presents a hybrid Power-to-Power (PtP) Optimal Power Dispatch (OPD) model for isolated systems with no electric grid access. Currently, the electricity supply in such cases is usually based on a mix of RE as the primary energy source sustained by a diesel genset acting as a backup generator. In this context, the model delivers the hourly energy flows between renewable production sources, energy storage devices and the electrical load, which minimises costs and Green House Gases (GHG) emissions. For validation purposes, the model was tested through its application to a case study in an isolated area in the Canary Islands, Spain. The results show that the algorithm calculates the hourly OPD successfully for a given plant sizing, considering the defined operational states of the different assets. These operational constraints showed a decrease in the PtP round-trip efficiency of 5.4% and a reduction of the hydrogen production of 9.7%. Finally, the techno-economic analysis of the results proves that the combination of hydrogen and batteries with RE production is a feasible alternative to phasing out fossil fuels for the selected case study – reducing the diesel generator usage down to 1.2% of the yearly energy supply.

Comparative Investigation of On-Grid and Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System for a Remote Area in District Jamshoro of Sindh, Pakistan

To meet electricity requirements and provide a long-term, sustainable existence, remote areas need to promote renewable projects. Most of the time, wind and solar power sources are selected as renewable energy technologies to help satisfy some of the power requirements. Alternative approaches should be employed, considering the inconsistent characteristics among those resources, to offer efficient and long-lasting responses. Electricity production needs to be conducted with the help of a wide range of energy sources to be productive and efficient. As a result, the current research concentrates on feasible analyses of interconnected hybrid energy systems for such remote residential electricity supply. To help a remote area’s establishment decide whether to adopt renewable electricity technology, this paper evaluates the techno-economic effectiveness of grid-connected and standalone integrated hybrid energy systems. The electricity requirements for the entire selected remote area were determined first. Furthermore, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, a national renewable energy laboratory, was used to evaluate the possibilities of green energy supplies. A thorough survey was performed to determine which parts were needed to simulate the interconnected hybrid energy systems. Employing the HOMER program, we conducted a simulation, optimizations, and economic research. Considering the net present cost, cost of energy, and compensation time, an economic comparison was made between the evaluated integrated hybrid systems. The assessment reveals that perhaps the grid-connected hybrid energy system is the best option for reliably satisfying remote areas’ energy needs.

A multi-objective optimization model for sizing an off-grid hybrid energy microgrid with optimal dispatching of a diesel generator

The paper presents a multi-objective optimization model for sizing and operating a hybrid energy system consisting of solar photovoltaic, wind energy, diesel generator, and battery storage. A new concept of optimizing the diesel generator loading percentage has been introduced. Also, the introduced battery management criteria will enable an adaptive operation hours of the diesel generator while regulating the battery state of charge. The proposed optimization model aims to minimize the total investment cost, operation & maintenance cost, and system’s carbon emissions. The number of PV panels, number of wind turbines, rated diesel generator capacity, rated battery capacity, and optimal loading percentage of the diesel generator will be optimized. The multi-objective optimization will be done using the Genetic Algorithm using MATLAB software. Obtained results are presented in a Pareto optimal chart for better analysis. The fuel cost per day, the levelized cost of electricity, the diesel generator on hours, and the emission factor of the hybrid system have been determined for each optimal output. A comparison was carried out with a previously proposed study and found that the proposed method increases the lifetime of the diesel generator by 42.9%. The optimal loading percentage of the diesel generator is found to be 75%. The proposed optimization model reduced the total cost and carbon emissions of the hybrid energy system by 3.5% and 0.7%, respectively. The levelized cost of energy and the payback period of the proposed hybrid microgrid system are 0.16 USD/kWh and 8 years, respectively, which verify that the proposed system is economically feasible.

A Novel EA-Based Techno–Economic Analysis of Charging System for Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Qassim Region, Saudi Arabia

Because of the fast expansion of electric vehicles (EVs) in Saudi Arabia, a massive amount of energy will be needed to serve these vehicles. In addition, the transportation sector radiates a considerable amount of toxic gases in the form of SO2 and CO2. The national grid must supply a huge amount of electricity on a regular basis to meet the increasing power demands of EVs. This study thoroughly investigates the technical and economic benefits of an off-grid and grid-connected hybrid energy system with various configurations of a solar, wind turbine and battery energy storage system for the electric vehicle charging load in the Qassim region, Saudi Arabia. The goal is to decrease the cost of energy while reducing the chance of power outages in the system. This is achieved by using a new optimization algorithm called the modified salp swarm optimization algorithm (MSSOA), which is based on an evolutionary algorithm approach. MSSOA is an improved version of SSOA, which addresses its shortcomings. It has two search strategies to enhance its efficiency: first, it uses Levy flight distribution (LFD) to help individuals reach new positions faster, and second, it instructs individuals to spiral around the optimal solution, improving the exploitation phase. The MSSOA’s effectiveness is confirmed by comparing its results with those of the conventional salp swarm optimization algorithm and particle swarm optimization (PSO). According to simulation findings, MSSOA has excellent accuracy and robustness. In this region, the SPV/WT/BESS-based EV charging station is the optimal option for EV charging stations. The SPV/WT/BESS design has the lowest LCOE of all feasible configurations in the region under study. The optimum values for the LCOE and TNPC using MSSOA are USD 0.3697/kWh and USD 99,928.34, which are much lower than the optimized values for the LCOE (USD 0.4156) and TNPC (USD 1,12,671.75) using SSOA. Furthermore, a comprehensive techno–economic analysis of optimized hybrid systems is assessed by incorporating the grid-connected option. The grid connected system results in optimized values of the LCOE (USD 0.0732/kWh) and TNPC (USD 1,541,076). The impact of different grid purchase prices on the levelized cost of energy is also studied. Our results will assist the researchers to determine the best technique for the optimization of an optimal energy system.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Energy Systems in Thakle Namuna Basti - A Case Study

The electrical supply system in most underdeveloped nations is incredibly undependable. The country’s existing distribution system has experienced regular power outages due to population growth, industrial expansion, rough terrain, and a long-distance transmission network. The conventional approach to centralized generation and transmission is failing to address this challenge and as a response, the utilization of renewable energy sources is expanding day by day to alleviate the energy crisis. The purpose of this study is to perform a techno-economic analysis of a 100% renewable off-grid and on-grid hybrid energy system for the electrification of Thakle Namuna Basti, a small communal village in Melamchi, Sindhupalchwok. The HOMER Pro 3.14 program is used to analyze the feasibility of the suggested hybrid power system. The available resources are provided as an input parameter along with load data and HOMER Pro optimizes the list of system architecture for that specific site. In addition, sensitivity analysis is performed for the proposed HES (Hybrid Energy System). The main outcome of the project is to find out the best system architecture based on various economic parameters such as NPC (Net Present Cost), LCOE (Levelized cost of electricity) and Operating and Maintenance Cost. The system having lowest NPC and LCOE makes the best system architecture.

Green hydrogen based off-grid and on-grid hybrid energy systems

This study aims to evaluate a green hydrogen (H2) based hybrid energy system (HES) from solar and wind renewable energy sources. The proposed HES contains PV panels, wind turbines and a proton exchange membrane water electrolyzer. Meteorology data such as solar radiation, temperature and wind speed were obtained from Atilim University Incek Campus Meteorology Station (Ankara, Turkey). The designed HES has been examined as both grid-connected and off-grid. In the grid-connected system, the electricity requirement of the load is supplied by the sun and wind, and the surplus energy produced is stored by producing H2 using an electrolyzer. In the off-grid HES, the electricity requirement of the load is completely provided by the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC). In this system, the electrolyzer produces the H2 needed by the PEMFC with the energy provided by solar and wind energy. According to the results, 20,186 kWh of energy is produced annually in the on-grid and 3273 sm3 of H2 is stored. The off-grid system is investigated for Design-1 and Design-2 using two different wind turbine (WT) rated power. In Design-1 and Design-2, annually 95,145 kWh and 83,511 kWh of energy are produced annually 17,942 sm3 and 14,370 sm3 H2 are stored, respectively. When the on-grid and off-grid systems are examined; levelized cost of energy (LCOE) was calculated as 0.223 $/kWh for the on-grid system and 0.416 $/kWh and 0.410 $/kWh for Design-1 and Design-2 for off-grid systems, respectively.

Technoeconomic Analysis and Optimization of Hybrid Solar-Wind-Hydrodiesel Renewable Energy Systems Using Two Dispatch Strategies

Sustainable generation is impacted by the adoption of renewable energy, the growth of energy markets, and economic strategies. This paper offers a sustainable strategy and a technoeconomic analysis of off-grid hybrid energy systems (HES) in remote islands of Iran, including Lavan, Larak, and Failaka, utilizing PV module, wind turbine, and hydrokinetic turbines. Hourly wind speed, solar irradiation, and hydrovelocity have been implemented under load following (LF) and cycle charging (CC) dispatch strategies in order to ascertain the most appropriate systems. Lavan Island achieves the winning HES with a CC dispatch strategy, which consists of 3 hydroelectric turbines, 1 wind turbine, 349 kW of solar power, 150 kW of generator power, 316 kWh of batteries, and 287 kW of the converter. This ideal HES, which generates a consistent generation profile and reasonable net present cost (NPC) and cost of energy (COE) of M0.160$ and $0.013 kWh, respectively, can be practically attained in these areas. LF-controlled optimal solutions use less fuel than CC-based ones, leading to a higher share of renewable energy. Compared to Larak and Lavan, the CC- and LF-controlled options on Failaka Island generate cleaner electricity with emissions that are 57% and 44% lower. Regarding the ability to recoup the project’s initial investment costs, long-term energy production would be more financially viable than short-term. Short-term projects with higher financial uncertainty due to the salvage cost should use the CC method.

Dynamic modelling and multi-objective optimization of off-grid hybrid energy systems by using battery or hydrogen storage for different climates

The energy storage problem is an essential issue in renewable energy-based power systems. A comprehensive study is performed to evaluate off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems with a battery bank or a hydrogen system employed as the energy storage option. Dynamic modelling is proposed to see daily and seasonally changes in the system. The economic feasibility of the system and its environmental impacts are investigated in three locations. A multi-objective optimization method based on the Taguchi approach is employed to minimize both levelized cost of energy and the CO2 emissions. Various weight factors were assigned to understand the response of different optimization targets. The results highlight that the hybridization of energy resources allows the annual emissions to be cut by 68–78% for battery storage, 84–90% for hydrogen storage, compared to a diesel-only system. Despite having higher costs, the systems with hydrogen storage can store energy in the long term; therefore, they have lower CO2 emissions.

In Malang, Indonesia, a techno-economic analysis of hybrid energy systems in public buildings

Because of the fickle nature of the renewable sources of energy production, professionals in this sector have developed hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) that offer a constant and stable load supply. This research intends to build off-grid hybrid energy systems (HES) in Malang, Indonesia, that uses a solar generator, wind turbine, and biogas to power public buildings. The HOMER program was used to construct this model. Following the computations, multiple hybrid renewable energy system models are used to analyze each component’s capital cost and also cost of energy (COE). Furthermore, energy output, gas emissions, and a thermoeconomic assessment of several HRES models have been explored. Two ideal HRES models were evaluated: one with a biogas generator and one without. According to the research, employing a generator of biogas would reduce fuel consumption and emissions by 68.3%. This HRES model is impressive in light of Malang’s severe air pollution. Switching from diesel to biogas generator decreases NPC by 6.84%, according to the data.

Off-Grid Wind-Solar Hybrid Energy System for Analaitivu Island in Sri Lanka

The objective of this project is to implement an off-grid wind-solar hybrid energy system with a battery bank system for Analaitivu island in Sri Lanka, which has no connection to the main grid. The hybrid model is developed by analyzing the wind-solar weather pattern of the island to fulfill the energy demand by choosing the ideal combination of solar cells and wind generators. KEYWORDS: Wind-Solar Hybrid Energy System, Battery Bank System, Off-grid Energy System, Analaitivu Island, Northern Province, Sri Lanka.

Analyzing the Prospect of Hybrid Energy in the Cement Industry of Pakistan, Using HOMER Pro

Cement manufacturing is one of the most energy-intensive industries in the world. Most of the cost of producing cement is accounted for in terms of fuel consumption and power expenditure. Thermal power plants are a significant contributor to electricity generation in countries such as Pakistan. They are, however, inherently inefficient, and environmentally unfriendly. In this paper, the authors investigated the possibility of delivering hybrid energy to Pakistani cement plants. Five cement plants—Askari Cement Plant, Wah (ACPW); Bestway Cement Plant, Kalar Kahar (BCPKK); Bestway Cement Plant, Farooqia (BCPF); Bestway Cement Plant, Hattar (BCPH); and DG Cement Plant, Chakwal (DGCPC)—were selected. The possibility of implementing the four off-grid hybrid energy models (HEMs) was investigated for the intended cement plants, using HOMER Pro software. A multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was carried out, based on objectives including the net present cost (NPC), the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. HEM-1 was comprised of PV, converter, and a fuel cell. HEM-2 had only a diesel generator, and acted as a base case in this study. HEM-3 had solar panels and a battery-converter system. In HEM-4, diesel generators, PV, and converters were considered. Based on the NPC, the optimal model was HEM-4, having a 0.249 USD/KWh LCOE in islanded systems. The NPC and operating costs were USD 540 M and USD 32.5 M per year, respectively, with a 29.80% reduction in the CO2 emissions compared to the base case. Based on the GHG emission, HEM-1 and HEM-3 were the best models, with 0% GHG emissions. The results confirmed that the proposed HEMs can sustainably provide electricity for 24 h a day to the sites under consideration, with minimum objectives.

Design of an Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System for Electrification of a Remote Region: a Case Study of Upper Blink Water Community, South Africa

Design of an Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System for Electrification of a Remote Region: a Case Study of Upper Blink Water Community, South Africa