Off-farm Opportunities Research Articles

Income Diversification among Small-Holder Farmers in Bosso Local Government Area of Niger State, Nigeria

The study examined income diversification among smallholder farmers in Bosso Local Government Area of Niger state, Nigeria. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 94 respondents for the study. Primary data were used and collected with aid of structured questionnaire complemented with an interview schedule. Descriptive statistics, diversity index and Logit regression model were employed to analyze the data collected. From the result of analysis, the mean age of the farmers was 44 years, average household size was 8 members per household and farm size was 2.4 hectares. Majority (78.7%) of the respondents acquired one form of formal education or the other, while 21.3% did not have formal education. Reasons for income diversification were poor crop and animal yield (97.9%), availability of off-farm opportunities and limited income from animal production (78.7%), and limited income from crop production (75.5%) ranked 1st, 2nd and 4th, respectively. The result further revealed that 69.2% of the respondents had an income diversity index of 0.21 - 0.40 indicating that level of income diversification was moderately low. The determinants of income diversification in the study area were age (-2.12), household size (1.83), land ownership (2.36), non – farm opportunities (5.42) and farm size (-2.47). These variables were positively related to income diversification and statistically significant 10%, 5% and 1% level of probability, respectively. In conclusion, diversification into various income sources have helped the respondents to sustain family demands, although, level of income diversification was low. It was therefore recommended that Government should formulate and implement policies that encourage smallholders to diversify their income in the study area.

Advancing the understanding of forest conservation dynamics through livelihood and landscape change scenarios: a case study in Chiapas, Mexico.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10668-023-02965-z.

Is Land Expropriation to Keep Agricultural Use an Effective Strategy for the Conservation of an Urban Agricultural Heritage System? Evidence from China

Urbanization is one of the major threats to the dynamic inheritance of the agricultural heritage system (AHS). The ability to achieve sustainable development in intra-urban areas is an essential proposition related to the innovation of AHS conservation principles. The Haizhu high bed-low ditch agroecosystem (HHBLDA), a China-Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage System site located at the center of Guangzhou City, is taken as an example in this study. The effect of implementing the Land Acquisition to Keep Agricultural Use (LAKAU) on intra-urban AHS conservation is assessed through literature collection and review, field survey, and in-depth interviews. The results show that the LAKAU was implemented because of a three-decades-long struggle between ecological conservation and urban sprawl. Because of the important functions of ecosystem services, the AHS can coexist with urban land use in the course of rapid urbanization. The LAKAU mode can ensure that the nature of farmland remains unchanged, which is an effective strategy for the conservation of an urban AHS. The resulting problems, such as high operating costs, insufficient agricultural outputs, and insufficient local farmers in the AHS site because of off-farm opportunities, should be addressed by establishing an effective self-sustaining mechanism. Realizing the compatibility of management concepts between the AHS and nature reserves, adapting to the changing role of farmers, and strengthening the acceptance of the AHS by urban managers should attract the attention of decision-makers.

The Pattern and Local Push Factors of Rural Depopulation in Less-Developed Areas: A Case Study in the Mountains of North Hebei Province, China.

Rural depopulation is the most significant geographical phenomenon in rural areas during the process of urbanization. Although many studies have investigated the driving force of rural depopulation based on rural-urban migration at the macro level, the local factors, and their impact on rural depopulation from the rural areas have been not fully revealed. This paper selected the northern mountains of China’s Hebei province as a study area to explore the pattern and local push factors of rural depopulation at the rural-township levels based on GeoDetector. The main findings are summarized as follows. (1) Rural depopulation varies substantially, demonstrates spatial correlation, and is distributed in clusters. From a dynamic perspective, compare that in years 2000–2010, the population growth areas during 2010–2017 have been significantly expanded, while the sharp depopulation areas and severe depopulation areas experienced shrinkage in our study area. (2) The pattern of rural depopulation is in accordance with terrain. Rural depopulation tends to be stronger in plateaus and mountains, while relatively milder in intermontane basins, hills, and piedmont plains. (3) The agricultural suitability of natural environmental and rural economic opportunities together with climate changes were the most important driving forces of rural depopulation at local levels. Location, sparse population, and inadequate public services also contributed to rural depopulation. However, the dominant driving factors are different in the different periods. Rural depopulation was mainly driven by arable land per capita and natural environmental variables in the years 2000–2010, while the population density, location, and off-farm economic opportunities played a decisive role in the years 2010–2017. (4) Rural depopulation is a complex, multi-dimensional process driven by a combination of multiple factors including different environmental factors, economic opportunities, and location. This paper reveals the push factors of rural depopulation in underdeveloped mountainous areas by a quantitative empirical approach, inspiring increased attention to the impacts of local factors and spatial correlations on rural depopulation, and has many implications for the policy design of China’s rural revitalization.

Strengthening Local Governance of Secondary Forest in Peru

Natural forest regrowth is critical for restoring ecosystem services in degraded landscapes and providing forest resources. Those who control tenure and access rights to these secondary forest areas determine who benefits from economically charged off-farm opportunities such as finance for forest restoration, selling carbon credits, and receiving payment for ecosystem services. We explore multiple dimensions of secondary forest governance in Peru, where the lack of official government statistics of the extent, geography, and ownership, coupled with low state capacity, prevents the development of governance structures that could stimulate their sustainable management. In this paper, we review the challenges to secondary forest governance, and the opportunities to strengthen it, focusing on beneficial outcomes for smallholder farmers. We characterize secondary forest types, extent, and persistence in Peru, followed by a presentation of the social dimensions of their governance. We identify four entry points for government to take action: national mapping of the socio-geography of second growth forest, regularize the property rights of untitled landholders, relax forest regulations, and provide incentives, not sanctions, for secondary forest management. Overall, we recommend folding secondary forest governance into a landscape approach. In Peru, strengthening local forest governance could help to drive benefits of climate change mitigation incentives directly to local forest stewards.

Why Do Households Depend on the Forest for Income? Analysis of Factors Influencing Households’ Decision-Making Behaviors

Using survey information of 150 randomly selected households across 21 villages of the forest-rich district of Swat, Pakistan, this study assessed households’ decision-making behaviors in depending on income from nearby forested land using socio-economic attributes. The evidence from the study may aid in making the existing policies be better targeted toward families that depend on the forest for income. Descriptive statistics and econometric techniques such as logit and tobit were used to analyze the data. Respondent households obtained the highest share of their income from off-farm activities (37%) and least from forest activities (16%). Fuelwood constitutes the biggest share (66%) of forest income, followed by medical plants (20%) and fodder (13%). We found that households with more physical assets, more family members working in off-farm jobs, and households earning more income from off-farm jobs were significantly and negatively associated with households’ decision to depend on forest income and total income obtained. We also found that households with less distance to the market and membership to joint forest management committees (JFMCs) were significantly and negatively associated with households’ total income obtained. However, household size was significantly and positively related to households’ decision of forest dependency. The study recommends the creation of off-farm opportunities and inclusion of local people in the management of forests through establishment of JFMCs, particularly for large and poor families.

Has the Sloping Land Conversion Program in China impacted the income and employment of rural households?

As the largest scale payment for ecosystem services program in the developing world, one of the key objectives of the Sloping Land Conversion Program (the SLCP) is to increase rural households' income and to reallocate their employments. This paper estimates the effects of the SLCP on rural households' income and employment changes using the unique panel dataset of 1001 rural households in six provinces from 1995 to 2014. Following a strict parallel trend and other econometrics tests, the Propensity score matching-Difference-in-differences (PSM-DID) estimation technique was used. Based on the unique panel dataset, this paper expands upon existing studies by estimating the effects of mid-to-long-term and subsidy scheme adjustment of the SLCP on rural households' income and employment. Our empirical results indicate that 1) the SLCP has no significant effect on rural households’ total income, while it has a negative effect on farm income. 2) The SLCP has a positive effect on forestry labor input. 3) Half reduction subsidy of the SLCP has caused different effects on rural households’ income and employment compared with that before policy adjustment. 4) The income effects of the SLCP are indifferent by income, location, demographic or resource endowment sub groups. Policy decision-makers should pay more attention to create more off-farm opportunities for rural households enrolled in the SLCP to maintain the achievements of the SLCP.

Strategies of Resilience: Cooperation in Irish Family Farming

Drawing from both historical ethnographic sociology and more recently collected narrative data, we trace changing resilience strategies employed by Irish family farms. We focus specifically on collective action within farm families and communities, a pathway to resilience that has traditionally depended on patriarchal relations and an accession of individual interests to the survival of the family farm. We find that new conditions for resilience have emerged, disrupting relationships on which historical forms of collective action depended. Threatened with the flight of women and youth towards off-farm opportunities, resilience strategies have come to accommodate better and respond to the needs of individuals in farm families. However, if the farm is to survive, family members remain collectively challenged with meeting its physical demands. One contemporary resilience strategy employs Joint Farming Ventures (JFVs), which involve formalised collaborative arrangements between husbands and wives, parents and offspring, non-immediate relatives, and farming neighbours. We find women and men at different stages in the lifecourse are employing JFVs to drive and resource renewed resilience strategies. Reconstituted relational arrangements within the farm family allow the farm to draw from an increased range of resources through an enhanced commitment of diverse farm family members. By prioritising the family farm, contemporary resilience strategies are consistent with historical ones but create greater capacity for family farm resilience by boosting reservoirs of social, cultural and economic capital available to the farm. This insight goes some way towards shedding light on the intricate puzzle that is the remarkable resilience of Irish family farms and those continuing to exist worldwide.

A portfolio perspective of rural livelihoods in Bushbuckridge, South Africa

Land-based income streams, which include the consumption and selling of crops, livestock and environmental products, are inherent in rural households’ livelihoods. However, the off-farm cash income stream – primarily composed of migrant labour remittances, social grants, and savings and loans – is increasing in importance in many regions. This case study of 590 households from Bushbuckridge, South Africa, analyses the economic value of each of these income streams at three points: what enters the household, what is used and what is sold. Two important findings emerge. First, dependence on offfarm cash incomes is far higher than previously suggested by case studies in the area and the benefits of employment accrue to those already better educated and wealthier. This suggests that shifts in offfarm opportunities will exacerbate already deep inequalities. Second, while environmental products and crops are important for direct use, they generate insignificant cash incomes from sales. This suggests a weakening of the direct links between the local ecosystem and this society, challenging traditional notions of African rurality being intrinsically land based.
 Significance:
 
 Off-farm incomes such as wage labour, remittances and social grants are almost the sole source of cash for households in the study area. Even when including non-monetary incomes such as harvested produce, foraged goods and livestock products, off-farm incomes still represent the overwhelmingly largest proportion of overall household income value. This highlights the fact that South African rural economies are not consistently or primarily land based, and indicates the necessity of rural development strategies that facilitate participation in local cash economies. Otherwise, such efforts will be unable to yield broad benefits and will, instead, simply enrich those who are already better off.

What Determines Indigenous Chepang Farmers’ Swidden Land-Use Decisions in the Central Hill Districts of Nepal?

Swidden or shifting cultivation is a widespread yet controversial land-use in the tropical forest–agriculture frontier. In recent years, the extent of land under swidden and the people who rely on it for subsistence and income have declined. We report swidden land-use changes in two central hill districts of Nepal by indigenous Chepang communities—a stronghold of swidden cultivation in mountainous Nepal. Despite a common trend of swidden decline, as in other parts of South and Southeast Asia, we found that swidden is important in the life and livelihoods of smallholder rural Chepang farmers in the area. Swidden cultivation was found to be more important to farmers with limited off-farm opportunities and in areas where alternative land-uses were scarce. We discuss biophysical, socio-economic, institutional, and other key drivers affecting farmers’ decision to shift away from or continue with swidden in the area. Using linear mixed effect models, we also examined households’ attributes that may expedite swidden decisions in the area. Our study recommends greater access to alternative land-use(s) and other income-generating options for the wellbeing of smallholder indigenous Chepang farmers, as well as the sustainability of this age-old land-use practice.

Participants’ livelihoods compatible with conservation programs: evidence from China’s grain-for-green program in northern Shaanxi Province

As the largest conservation program and payments for ecosystem services in China, the grain-for-green program (GGP) has substantially changed land use and cover, and reduced soil erosion in participating areas. However, whether the GGP enhances participants’ livelihoods still lacks robust evidence. Based on the sustainable livelihood framework, the objectives of this work is to understand how livelihood capitals of participants changed and to examine which factors influenced participants’ livelihood activities and land use choices and to what extent before and after implementing the program. We found that despite a significant reduction in arable land area per capita, the GGP dose indeed do no harm to participants’ lives. In contrast, through key forces such as savings and debt, income diversity, education and health, transportation, and off-farm job opportunities, participants in the program have switched livelihood activities dominated by subsistence farming into off-farm activities such as migrant labor and rural business or high market-oriented horticulture/orchard farming. Transportation, education, health and off-farm work opportunities, income are key factors affecting livelihood activities. Besides, sustained and sound subsidies would contribute to improving participants’ livelihoods.

Dependence of rural livelihoods on forest resources in Naltar Valley, a dry temperate mountainous region, Pakistan

Forests resources in Naltar Valley, Pakistan, are under continuous pressure because of limited access to off-farm opportunities and alternative source of energy. Therefore, this study underlines the essential demographic and socio-economic characteristics of rural livelihood on forest resource-dependent in the study area that explain the factors of forest dependency. To better estimate household forest dependency, we interviewed 248 randomly selected households using a semi-structured questionnaire. The binary logistic regression model was used to evaluate the potential determinants of forest resource dependency. The study revealed that age, education, household size, livestock income, agriculture income, and off-farm income were significantly influenced household dependency on forest resource, while other factors were not significant. Furthermore, the result shows that the income derived from the forests resources, agricultural products, livestock and off-farm activities contributes 39%, 33%, 16% and 12% respectively to the total household income. Forest income share from timber, firewood, honey, fodder, medicines, and fruits & vegetables are 46%, 52%, 1%, 1%, 0.41%and 0.47% respectively. Firewood has the most significant share in forest income and the primary source of energy mainly for cooking, and heating by the local community. To balance forest resource dependency and to conserve biodiversity, it is therefore essential to appreciate local communities by providing alternative income generation opportunities and provide them with alternative sources of domestic energy like hydroelectric power and biogas power. To this end, the proactive involvement of local communities in forest conservation is needed, as well as more plantation to meet the demand for fuelwood and thus reduce the pressure on forest resources.

How Societal Values Determine the Local Use of Forest Resources—Findings from the Rural Community Kegong (Northwest Yunnan, China)

The transition from net deforestation to net reforestation in China has received much scientific attention, in the hope that, by understanding the underlying drivers and processes, it might be reproduced in other regions of the world. The scientific literature has suggested that this process was driven by the creation of off-farm opportunities and huge state afforestation programs by economic growth. Recent publications, however, have noted a lack of inclusion of local dynamics in this analysis. We used the social-ecological interactions (SEI) framework, designed for the assessment of ecosystem services in socio-ecological systems, to trace the causes and patterns of the local use of forest biomass in a village in Northwest Yunnan. Our results suggest that societal values, in particular, are key to understanding the local resource use underlying the forest transition in Yunnan. However, societal values have been neglected, both in the analysis of forest transition as well as in social-ecological systems research, in general.

Economic Participation of Rural Youth: What Matters?

Employment opportunities (for youth and non-youth) depend on the development of the economy: structural transformation, rural transformation and employment transformation. In rural areas, employment transformation (to steady, more productive wage employment) takes longer than in urban areas. Strategies to facilitate youth’s entry into employment (the youth-specific employment challenge) have to take account of this. We have limited evidence on how youth handle this challenge in rural areas, and on effects of targeted programmes on this challenge – either the impact of non-targeted agricultural productivity and earnings programmes on youth’s challenges or the impact of targeted youth programmes in rural areas. Certainly, the rural-urban gap in education and learning disadvantages rural youth. Anecdotal evidence suggests that when new off-farm opportunities develop in rural areas, youth are able to access them, while entry into farming may be hindered by lack of access to land. Evidence on programmes in urban areas to help youth enter self-employment may hold lessons for programme design for rural youth. A key lesson is that lack of technical skills does not seem to be the biggest obstacle youth face in entering the labour force. Given that most rural tasks (farm or non-farm) do not require a high degree of technical skill, we can expect that this would be even truer in rural areas. Microfinance (or cash grants) has been helpful in urban settings to help youth start non-farm businesses. Evidence on agricultural extension programmes suggests that peer-to-peer learning works best, perhaps arguing for youth-specific programmes to upgrade farming skills and knowledge, but this needs to be tested.

From big to small: the significance of smallholder farms in the global food system

From big to small: the significance of smallholder farms in the global food system

An assessment by subsistence farmers of the risks to food security attributable to climate change in Makwanpur, Nepal

The potential impacts of climate change on the food security of subsistence farmers is a serious concern. This article explores the food security situations of two categories of subsistence farm households, vegetable- and cereal-based farming systems, in the Makwanpur district of Nepal in the context of climate change. Local climate data for the past 30 years were analyzed. Interviews with local farmers and key informants, and focus group discussions were carried out to collect the primary data. Empirical data showed that changes in climate variables for the study period were in line with farmers’ perceptions and that farming communities were negatively impacted. Perceived impacts were erratic rainfall, increased frequency of floods and droughts, soil degradation and insect pests, weeds and diseases. Farmers have modified traditional cropping patterns and calendar, changed crop varieties and increased fertilizer and pesticide applications in order to maintain crop yields. They have also sought off-farm employment. However, agricultural productivity in the area is declining and only one third of all households in the area were food secure. Household food insecurity was at mild to moderate levels, but vegetable-based households were more secure than cereal-based ones. At the household level, locally successful adaptive measures, such as rainwater harvesting, mulching, planting date adjustments, off-farm opportunities, including infrastructure and extension support, could increase production and contribute to reversing the impact of increased risk attributed to climate change.

Drivers of household food availability in sub-Saharan Africa based on big data from small farms

We calculated a simple indicator of food availability using data from 93 sites in 17 countries across contrasted agroecologies in sub-Saharan Africa (>13,000 farm households) and analyzed the drivers of variations in food availability. Crop production was the major source of energy, contributing 60% of food availability. The off-farm income contribution to food availability ranged from 12% for households without enough food available (18% of the total sample) to 27% for the 58% of households with sufficient food available. Using only three explanatory variables (household size, number of livestock, and land area), we were able to predict correctly the agricultural determined status of food availability for 72% of the households, but the relationships were strongly influenced by the degree of market access. Our analyses suggest that targeting poverty through improving market access and off-farm opportunities is a better strategy to increase food security than focusing on agricultural production and closing yield gaps. This calls for multisectoral policy harmonization, incentives, and diversification of employment sources rather than a singular focus on agricultural development. Recognizing and understanding diversity among smallholder farm households in sub-Saharan Africa is key for the design of policies that aim to improve food security.

Potential Impact of Alternative Agricultural Technologies to Ensure Food Security and Raise Income of Farm Households in Rwanda

Rapid population growth and stagnation of agricultural yields in Rwanda have caused a steady decline in food production per capita, a continuous expansion towards the use of marginal land and a strong degradation of land. The challenge of simultaneously achieving food security, rural welfare, land protection and soil fertility regeneration in the face of its high population is overwhelming to Rwanda. The objectives of this article are to assess the potential impacts of the alternative agricultural technologies on income, food production and soil loss for four arable farm household types and to assess policies that could induce adoption of these technologies. These include combined use of Tithonia diversifolia (green manure) and Diammonium phosphate. The bio-economic farm household model used has a form of a mathematical form of quadratic programming model. Model results show that these alternative agricultural technologies will clearly enhance food production and income for all farm household types except the full-time farm household for which cash at the beginning of the season is too restricted to switch to the new technologies. The outcomes of the model also reveal that with alternative technologies soil loss and soil organic carbon do not entail negative economic consequences. Off-farm employment policy will have a high impact on adoption among households with small farms and less off-farm opportunities because it provides cash that is needed to adopt the new technologies.

Farm typologies, soil fertility variability and nutrient management in smallholder farming in Sub-Saharan Africa

Farm typologies are a useful tool to assist in unpacking and understanding the wide diversity among smallholder farms to improve targeting of crop production intensification strategies. Sustainable crop production intensification will require the development of an array of nutrient management strategies tailored to farm-specific conditions, rather than blanket recommendations across diverse farms. This study reviewed key literature on smallholder farm typologies focusing on three countries (Kenya, Malawi and Zimbabwe), to gain insights on opportunities for crop production intensification, and the importance of developing farm-specific nutrient management practices. Investigations on farm typologies have done well in highlighting the fundamental differences between farm categories, with 3–5 typologies often adequate to represent the wide differences in resource endowment. Resource-endowed farmers have ready access to large quantities of manure and mineral fertilizers, which contribute to higher soil fertility and crop productivity on their farms. Resource-constrained households use little or no manure and mineral fertilizers, and have limited capacity to invest in labour-demanding soil fertility management technologies. These farmers often have to rely on off-farm opportunities for income that are largely limited to selling unskilled labour to their resource-endowed neighbors. The variability in management practices by farmers has resulted in three main soil fertility classes that can be used for targeting soil fertility management technologies, characterized by potential response to fertilizer application as: (1) low-responsive fertile fields that receive large additions of manure and fertilizer; (2) high-responsive infertile fields that receive moderate nutrient applications; (3) poorly responsive degraded soils cultivated for many years with little or no nutrient additions. The main conclusions drawn from the review are: (1) resource constrained farmers constitute the widest band across the three countries, with many of the farmers far below the threshold for sustainable maize production intensification and lacking capacity to invest in improved seed and fertilizer, (2) farm sizes and livestock ownership were key determinants for both farmer wealth status and farm productivity, and (3) soil organic carbon and available P were good indicators for predicting previous land management, that is also invariably linked to farmer resource endowment.

Can Peers Improve Agricultural Productivity?

Productivity varies greatly among farmers and the source of that variation is not fully understood. Using a unique Indian household survey, we estimate peer effects on agricultural revenue. Results show that 60% of farmers' revenue is explained by peers. Input expenditures and land allocation to cash crops do not fully explain the variation in revenue, implying peers may also affect management, negotiation and marketing strategies. We verify that endogenous network formation, geography, off-farm opportunities and agricultural extension do not drive our results. Peer effects are strongest for agricultural peers and in the cultivation of a new crop.