Ocular Opportunistic Infections Research Articles

Retinal detachment and mortality in patients with cytomegalovirus retinitis: A multicenter study in taiwan.

To characterize patients with cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis and identify risk factors for retinal detachment (RD) and mortality in this Taiwanese patient population. This retrospective study included patients diagnosed with CMV retinitis between 2007 and 2019. The diagnosis was confirmed through aqueous polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Relevant data were collected from the Chang Gung Research Database. Univariate Cox regression was performed to identify the associations of RD and mortality risks with various patient characteristics, including demographic features, comorbidities, laboratory results, and medication use patterns. In total, 32 patients with CMV retinitis were included. Among these patients, 78.1% had an immunocompromised status, including 56.3% with high-dose systemic steroid use, 21.9% with HIV infection, 12.5% with hematologic malignancy, and 9.4% with renal transplantation. Approximately 21.9% of patients had RD 2.4 ± 2.1 months after CMV retinitis diagnosis, and 34.4% died within 6.2 [4.2, 38.2] months after diagnosis. Patients with RD had a statistically significant, but likely not clinically significant, later initiation of anti-CMV medications compared to their non-RD counterparts (8 [5, 23] days vs. 2 [1,11] days, p = 0.039). Mortality was significantly associated with older age (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-1.10), hematologic malignancy (HR: 5.92; 95% CI: 1.44-24.37), and positivity for CMV on blood PCR (HR: 4.93; 95% CI: 1.49-16.35). Our study suggests that older age, hematologic malignancy, and positivity for CMV on blood PCR are risk factors for mortality in patients with CMV retinitis. What is known Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis is the predominant sight-threatening opportunistic ocular infection in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). What is new In the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy for AIDS, the majority of CMV retinitis patients are those receiving immunomodulatory therapy for underlying diseases. Older age, hematologic malignancy, and positive blood polymerase chain reaction for CMV are potential risk factors for mortality in patients with CMV retinitis.

Evaluation of tear film in patients with AIDS without opportunistic ocular infections in the era of COVID-19: A case-control study.

The assessment of tear film and ocular surface conditions in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) has been poorly studied thus far. We aim to assess tear film parameters, ocular surface characteristics, and dry eye disease (DED) symptoms of patients with AIDS who did not undergo highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART). This case-control study included 154 age-, sex-, and ethnicity-matched healthy controls and patients with AIDS. All participants underwent comprehensive ocular surface assessment and subjective DED symptomology evaluation. Data were collected between March 2022 and July 2022. HAART-naïve patients with AIDS had a shorter noninvasive tear film breakup time (median 3.76 vs. 8.54 s), thinner tear film lipid layer thickness (median 73.00 vs. 91.00 nm), and lower Schirmer I test values (median 5.00 mm/5 min vs. 12.00 mm/5 min) (all P < 0.001). Moreover, higher corneal fluorescein staining scores (median 1.00 vs. 0.00) and higher upper, lower, and total meibomian gland grades were observed in AIDS patients (all P < 0.05). Negative correlations between the blood viral load and the Ocular Surface Disease Index score ( r = -3.50, P = 0.027) and the Schirmer I test score ( r = -0.374, P = 0.017) were detected in patients with AIDS. Altered tear film status was observed in individuals with HAART-naïve AIDS, even when there were no other ocular symptoms present. Therefore, patients with AIDS should be encouraged to undergo comprehensive ocular surface examinations to detect any subclinical tear film alterations occurring.

Discordance of Aqueous/Plasma HIV Replication on ART.

The study was conducted to analyze HIV dynamics across blood-retinal barrier (BRB) and the relevant risk factors for HIV-associated ocular complications. This study included a case series of 40 HIV-positive patients with ocular lesions, which were studied retrospectively. Clinical and laboratory examinations included plasma and intraocular viral load (VL). HIV VL on paired aqueous/plasma samples was available for 40 patients. Aqueous VL was negatively associated with antiretroviral treatment (ART) duration (p = 0.02 and p < 0.05), and plasma VL was independent of ART duration (p = 0.53). An aqueous/plasma discordance was found in 19/40 (47.5%) patients, eight of whom (20%) had detectable aqueous VL despite a suppressed plasma VL (escape). There were significant differences in CD4+ T-lymphocyte levels (p = 0.011 and p < 0.05) and ART duration (p = 0.007 and p < 0.05) between the patients with HIV-associated ocular complications and the patients without. This study provides a rationale for initiating ART early in the course of infection to reduce HIV VL in the aqueous humor, and raises the possibility of the ocular sanctuary where HIV replicates. Meanwhile, early and standard ART would be an optimal option to protect against ocular opportunistic infection.

Ocular manifestations of HIV infection at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa.

The pattern of HIV-associated eye disease has changed with ongoing advancements in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). HIV-infected individuals now live longer, enabling us to observe the long-term effects of HIV and HAART on the eye. There are few recent studies on HIV-related ocular disease in sub-Saharan Africa. To describe the ocular manifestations of HIV in patients attending the Nthabiseng HIV clinic at Chris Hani Baragwanath Academic Hospital, Johannesburg, South Africa. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2021 and 2022 using convenience sampling of patients at the HIV clinic. The participants' clinical history was taken, their files were reviewed, and they underwent ocular examination. Correlation between eyes was managed by taking disease in one eye as the presence of disease in the participant. Descriptive statistics were used to summarise participant characteristics. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression models were used to assess the odds ratio (OR) of developing HIV-associated ocular diseases, and a p-value of <0.05 was used to define statistical significance. There were 182 participants (139 females and 43 males), with a mean (standard deviation) age of 48.9 (10.6) years. The most common anterior segment diagnoses were conjunctival microangiopathy (34.6%), pinguecula (31.3%) and cataracts (30.2%), while the most common posterior segment finding was peripheral retinal scarring with features in keeping of previous cytomegalovirus retinitis (24.2%). Notably, only 1.1% of patients had HIV retinopathy. A CD4 count <200 cells/μL showed an increased OR for cataracts (OR 4.24; p=0.003) and any anterior segment diagnoses (OR 10.05; p=0.029), while a CD4 count ≥200 cells/μL showed an increased risk of conjunctival microangiopathy (OR 2.14; p=0.017). With the advent of HAART, ocular manifestations of HIV are changing and the incidence of severe ocular opportunistic infections and HIV retinopathy has decreased precipitously. Although this study has shown that patients with a CD4 count <200 cells/μL are at increased risk of developing anterior ocular manifestations of HIV, including cataracts, these diseases are relatively innocuous or easily treatable. Routine ocular screening of HIV patients seems to be substantially less important now than it was in the pre-HAART era.

Human immune deficiency virus conundrum: An everlasting challenge!

BACKGROUND:Human immune deficiency virus (HIV) causes a wide spectrum of diseases worldwide and has the capability to affect every organ system in the body. Ocular manifestations have been reported in up to 70% of individuals infected with HIV and the ocular manifestations reflect systemic disease and maybe the first sign of disseminated infection.PURPOSE:To study the pattern of ocular manifestations related to HIV in seropositive patients with the objective of identifying its spectrum in highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era and to emphasize on the role of ophthalmologists in fighting the battle against HIV.MATERIALS AND METHODS:A cross sectional study was undertaken on 300 HIV positive patients. Data were collected, tabulated and analyzed using MSTAT software. Chi-square test was applied and P < 0.05 was considered significant.RESULTS:Ocular lesions were observed in 50.33% of patients. Conjunctival microvasculopathy being the most common finding seen in 27 (9%) patients, followed by retinal microvasculopathy and trichomegaly in 20 (6.66%) patients each. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus and cytomegalovirus retinitis were observed in four (1.33%) and three (1%) patients respectively. In the study 78.33% patients were on ART.CONCLUSION:HAART has reduced serious ocular opportunistic infections and ocular malignancies, but HAART mediated visually disabling immune recovery uveitis has emerged as a clinical challenge for ophthalmologists. Improved communication between the two broad specialties of HIV medicine and ophthalmology will definitely go a long way in the battle against this dreadful disease.

Macular Structure and Microvasculature Changes in AIDS-Related Cytomegalovirus Retinitis Using Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography.

Background: Cytomegalovirus retinitis (CMVR) is a crucial blind-causing disease of AIDS-related ocular opportunistic infection. The CMVR lesions produced retinal necrosis. It is not entirely clear whether CMVR eyes without macular-involved necrotic lesions may have subtle macular damage. In this study, we conducted a cross-sectional study using optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA) to evaluate macular microvasculature and structure in eyes with AIDS-related CMVR.Methods: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)-related CMVR patients (active and inactive CMVR) and healthy controls treated in the Department of Ophthalmology, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University between August 25, 2019, and October 18, 2019, were recruited. All OCTA parameters, including the foveal avascular zone (FAZ), retinal vessel density (VD), choroidal vascularity index (CVI), retinal thickness, and choroidal thickness, were compared between groups after the signal strength was corrected.Results: Signal strength in the 3 × 3 and 6 × 6 mm scan patterns was significantly weaker in the inactive CMVR group than in the control group (both p < 0.001). After adjusting for signal strength, heterogeneity in the central fovea and parafoveal quadrants was present with a shift toward lower macular chorioretinal vasculature, decreased full choroidal thickness, and thicker retinal thickness in the active and inactive CMVR groups. The retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) and inner nuclear layer (INL) were significantly thicker in the active and inactive CMVR groups than in the control group (all p < 0.05). For photoreceptor-retinal pigment epithelium (PR-RPE) thickness, no significant differences were found in any quadrant between groups. Foveal avascular zone areas were not significantly different among the three groups (p = 0.053).Conclusions: Subtle macular structure and microvasculature damage still existed in CMVR eyes without macular-involved necrotic lesions. The results of our study are helpful for a deep understanding of the damage caused by CMVR.

P048 Cytomegalovirus retinitis in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis on tofacitinib

Abstract Background/Aims Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis is one of the most common opportunistic ocular infections and has traditionally been associated with immunocompromised individuals. We present a case of CMV retinitis following 3 months of treatment with tofacitinib in conjunction with methotrexate (MTX) for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in an elderly lady with no other co-morbidities. Methods The case is presented below. Results 69-year-old lady with long standing seronegative, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide negative, erosive RA since 2016. She was intolerant of sulphasalazine, leflunamide, methotrexate and etanercept. Hydroxychloroquine was avoided due to idiopathic cystoid macular oedema in the right eye with a baseline visual acuity of 6/18. Baseline fundus fluorescein angiogram (FFA) was negative for any vascular, inflammatory or occlusive disease. She was escalated to tofacitinib in August 2019. Approximately 3 months later, she noticed significantly reduced vision in her right eye from 6/18 down to 6/60. She had an FFA and Indocyanine Green Angiography, which showed quite extensive retinal ischaemia and vasculitis. Her bloods revealed a raised serum ACE and a T-spot test from 2018 was reactive followed by a repeat in 2019 which was equivocal. Tofacitinib was discontinued. She was commenced on rifampicin and isoniazid as 3 months prophylaxis for latent tuberculosis (LTBI). Additionally, she was started on oral prednisolone 60mg daily for presumed sarcoid related retinal vasculitis. She failed to improve despite a week’s treatment and subsequently had a vitreous aspirate which was strongly positive for CMV PCR. Her CMV viral load was 267copies/ml. The aspirate was negative for other infectious agents. She was commenced on valganciclovir for CMV retinitis. Unfortunately, her vision remained unchanged despite the viral load becoming undetectable a few weeks later. Despite having LTBI, there was no reactivation of this with her immunosuppressive therapy. Conclusion CMV retinitis is usually associated with immunocompromised individuals and is rarely encountered related to tofacitinib therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Tofacitinib suppresses T cell function by inhibiting STAT signalling pathways, modulating T cell activation and cytokine production. Our case highlights the preferential development of CMV retinitis over active TB in the presence of LTBI, which is a recognised risk with the use of JAK kinase inhibitors. TB risk has been associated with genetic mutations in IL-12, IFN-γ and STAT1 pathways while CMV activation may be influenced by mutations in HLA ,Toll-like receptors, immunoglobulin light chain antibodies, IFN lambda region as well as alternative transcripts of the CMV viral major immediate early genes. Disclosure K. Beharry: None. S. Kaur: None. E. Papagiannuli: None. S. Moses: None. D. De Lord: None.

Utility of Treponemal Testing from Aqueous Fluid in the Diagnosis of Ocular Syphilis in Patients with HIV/AIDS

ABSTRACT Purpose Ocular syphilis is re-emerging globally especially in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Atypical manifestations of ocular syphilis and/or other associated opportunistic infections often lead to a diagnostic dilemma. We evaluated the utility of aqueous humor (AH) Treponema pallidum hemagglutination assay (TPHA) titers in the diagnosis of ocular syphilis. Methods Retrospective case series of five HIV positive patients with positive syphilis serology in whom AH sampling was performed. All patients had ocular manifestations suspicious of infectious etiology. Results Panuveitis with/without retinitis was the commonest presentation. Along with blood investigations, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing from AH was done for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV), Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV), Cytomegalovirus (CMV), and Toxoplasma gondii. In addition, serum antibody titers for Toxoplasma, rapid plasma reagin (RPR) and TPHA tests for syphilis were done. In patients with raised serum RPR/TPHA, aqueous TPHA titers were also assessed. Mean serum RPR titer was ≥ 1:32 and TPHA titer was ≥1:1280. Aqueous humor titers of TPHA was high in all patients (range ≥ 1:320 to ≥1:5120). Aqueous PCR was negative for all other infectious etiologies in four patients. In one patient, PCR-CMV was also positive, suggestive of a dual infection. Post-treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and appropriate anti-syphilitic regime, complete resolution of lesions with corresponding fall in the serum RPR/TPHA titers were noted in all patients. Conclusions Ocular syphilis with atypical presentations is usually diagnosed based on a positive syphilis serology and by excluding other infectious causes. In the present study, we have shown an excellent correlation between raised AH TPHA titers with serological values and the clinical presentation. Considering the ease of collection of AH in contrast to vitreous fluids, the AH-TPHA assay could potentially be a valuable tool in the diagnosis of ocular syphilis.

Case Report: Cytomegalovirus Choroideoretinitis in an hiV positive patient

BACKGROUND: CMV retinitis is a viral opportunistic ocular infection that affects more frequent-ly HIV positive- AIDS patients. HIV virus infects cells that express CD4, like: lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells; as a consequence the patient gets immunosuppressed, increasing its susceptibility to opportunist infections. CMV retinitis is the most frequent cause of opportunist infections in AIDS patients; but only 8% of the patients present with CMV retinitis a an initial sign. CASE REPORT: 26 year old male patient, being evaluated for fever of unknown origin, was diagnosed of HIV infection. Complementary tests showed CMV positive PCR test. At the oph-thalmological examination a perimacular exudate was evident on the right eye, the patient was asymptomatic at the moment of the diagnosis. EVOlUTION: After being diagnosed of HIV infection and CMV retinitis, patient started taking HAART and Valganciclovir. The ourtcome was good, perimacular exudate disappeared in pos-terior follow up. CONClUSIONS: CMV retinitis is frequent in HIV-AIDS patients. Sometimes the patients are asymptomatic, or missing diagnosis of HIV, therefore it is important to standarize early detection and treatment measures, to improve life quality for this patients. KEYWORDS: RETINITIS, CYTOMEGALOVIRUS, HIV, AIDS

Cytomegalovirus Retinitis in HIV and Non-HIV Individuals.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis (CMVR) is a severe, vision-threatening disease that primarily affects immunosuppressed patients. CMVR is the most common ocular opportunistic infection in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients and is the leading cause of blindness in this group; however, the incidence of CMVR in HIV patients has dramatically decreased with antiretroviral therapy. Other causes of immunosuppression, including organ transplantation, hematologic malignancies, and iatrogenic immunosuppression, can also lead to the development of CMVR. Herein, we describe the pathogenesis of CMVR and compare clinical features, epidemiology, and risk factors in HIV and non-HIV infected individuals with CMVR.

Opportunistic ocular infections in the setting of HIV.

The aim of this review is to highlight recent changes in opportunistic ocular infections (OOIs) in the era of modern combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), in the setting of HIV-infected patients. Improvements in modern cART has led to a progressive decline in the incidence of OOIs and mortality among patients with AIDS. Not only has there been a decreasing incidence of cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis, but there also has been a decline in progression of such retinitis when it does occur in AIDS patients, since the introduction of cART. Nevertheless, CMV retinitis remains the major cause of vision loss in AIDS patients. Although the incidence of CMV retinitis has declined overall, the incidence of ocular syphilis has increased during the cART era. Moreover, the impact of having HIV plays a role with respect to multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis and has resulted in a high prevalence of presumed ocular tuberculosis in HIV/MDR-TB co-infected patients. Although immune reconstitution uveitis (IRU) has been an important cause of visual deficits in developed countries, OOIs remain an important cause of blindness in the developing world. Reconstituting the immune system with effective cART while increasing accessibility of screening examinations is key to the success of blindness prevent in HIV-infected individuals, particularly in developing countries.

Bilateral extensive CMV retinitis in a sick child – Harbinger of severe combined immunodeficiency

Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis is a marker of severe cellular immunodeficiency. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) must be considered in infants presenting with CMV retinitis in a non-HIV setting. Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is a life-threatening syndrome characterized by recurrent infections, diarrhoea, dermatitis, and failure to thrive. Clinically, most children present before the age of 3 months. Without intervention, SCID is universally fatal. SCID is considered a pediatric emergency because survival depends on expeditious hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common opportunistic ocular infection in children with SCID. We report a 4-month-old male infant, with extensive bilateral CMV retinitis secondary to SCID.

A rare case of cytomegalovirus papillitis in patient with immunodeficiency

A 26-year-old male diagnosed with AIDS came with sudden blurred vision and central sco-toma in left eye since 2 weeks before admission. His visual acuity was counting finger at 5 meters with normal IOP and anterior segment. The posterior segment revealed edematous optic nerve covered by exudates and hemorrhages. Due to low CD4+ count and serological test result, we considered a HIV-related opportunistic ocular infection, specifically HSV infection. As visual acuity worsened during treatment with acyclovir, we performed PCR ex-amination from aqueous tap which revealed positive CMV DNA. Unfortunately, the visual acuity had worsened to no light perception before he received any specific anti-CMV agent. CMV papillitis is an unusual presentation of CMV retinitis. PCR examination from aqueous or vitreous tap should be performed while waiting for serological test result, especially in doubtful cases. Therefore, appropriate diagnosis and management can be established early to prevent irreversible visual loss.

HIV-1 gp120 Glycoprotein Interacting with Dendritic Cell-specific Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 3-grabbing Non-integrin (DC-SIGN) Down-Regulates Tight Junction Proteins to Disrupt the Blood Retinal Barrier and Increase Its Permeability

Approximately 70% of HIV-1 infected patients acquire ocular opportunistic infections and manifest eye disorders during the course of their illness. The mechanisms by which pathogens invade the ocular site, however, are unclear. Under normal circumstances, vascular endothelium and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), which possess a well developed tight junction complex, form the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) to prevent pathogen invasion. We hypothesize that disruption of the BRB allows pathogen entry into ocular sites. The hypothesis was tested using in vitro models. We discovered that human RPE cells could bind to either HIV-1 gp120 glycoproteins or HIV-1 viral particles. Furthermore, the binding was mediated by dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule 3-grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN) expressed on RPE cells. Upon gp120 binding to DC-SIGN, cellular NF-κB signaling was triggered, leading to the induction of matrix metalloproteinases, which subsequently degraded tight junction proteins and disrupted the BRB integrity. DC-SIGN knockdown or prior blocking with a specific antibody abolished gp120-induced matrix metalloproteinase expression and reduced the degradation of tight junction proteins. This study elucidates a novel mechanism by which HIV, type 1 invades ocular tissues and provides additional insights into the translocation or invasion process of ocular complication-associated pathogens.

Relationship between Human Immunodeficiency Virus Neuroretinal Disorder and Vision-Specific Quality of Life among People with AIDS

Some human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals have evidence of optic nerve or retinal dysfunction that manifests as decreased contrast sensitivity, even with good best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA). This condition, termed HIV-related neuroretinal disorder (HIV-NRD), is a risk factor for vision impairment (BCVA <20/40), blindness (BCVA ≤20/200), and increased mortality. We investigated the effect of HIV-NRD on vision-specific quality of life (QOL). Cross-sectional analysis of data from a prospective, observational study. Individuals from the Longitudinal Study of the Ocular Complications of AIDS cohort who completed the National Eye Institute 25-item Visual Function Questionnaire (VFQ-25), had BCVA of 20/40 or better, and had no evidence of ocular opportunistic infection or cataract. We compared QOL by HIV-NRD status, adjusting for potential confounding variables, using multiple linear regression. Among those with HIV-NRD, we assessed the relationship between VFQ-25 and the logarithm of contrast sensitivity (logCS), using Spearman correlation. We defined a minimum clinically important difference (MCID) as 1 standard error of measurement from a well-characterized, historical population of individuals with a variety of ophthalmic disorders. Subscales and composite VFQ-25 scores (0 = worst, 100 = best). A total of 813 individuals met study criteria. Those with HIV-NRD (n = 39 [4.8%]) had a lower mean composite score than those without HIV-NRD (81 vs. 89; P = 0.0002) and lower mean scores in the following subscales: near activities (77 vs. 86; P = 0.004), distance activities (85 vs. 91; P = 0.01), social functioning (89 vs. 96; P = 0.0005), mental health (75 vs. 87; P = 0.0001), dependency (81 vs. 94; P < 0.0001), driving (75 vs. 85; P = 0.02), color vision (90 vs. 97; P < 0.0001), and peripheral vision (85 vs. 91; P = 0.0496). Score differences for each of these subscales met criteria for MCID. Among those with HIV-NRD, there was a positive correlation between logCS and composite score (r = 0.36; 95% confidence interval, 0.04-0.60). HIV-NRD has a statistically significant and clinically meaningful association with decreased vision-specific QOL among people with AIDS and good BCVA.

Neuroretinal Degeneration in HIV Patients Without Opportunistic Ocular Infections in the cART Era

Subtle structural and functional retinal abnormalities, termed 'HIV-associated Neuroretinal Disorder (HIV-NRD)', have been reported in HIV patients receiving combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), without infectious retinitis or any apparent fundus abnormalities otherwise. In this review, we provide an overview of studies investigating HIV-NRD in HIV patients without opportunistic ocular infections in the cART era, and try to elucidate underlying mechanisms and associated risk factors. Most studies focused on patients with severe immune-deficiency and demonstrated that patients with nadir CD4 counts<100 cells/μL are most at risk for neuroretinal damage, with a thinner retinal nerve fiber layer, subtle loss of color vision and/or contrast sensitivity, visual field deficits, and subnormal electrophysiological responses. In contrast, alterations in retinal vascular calibers and retinal blood flow were not associated with nadir CD4 counts, but instead with detectable viremia, suggesting a role for (chronic) inflammation in microvascular damage. Although the alterations in visual function are subtle, they can lead to difficulties in activities, such as reading or driving, thereby affecting quality of life. Since HIV has become a chronic disease, its long-term effects with respect to visual function loss become more important, as is recently emphasized by a longitudinal study, reporting that AIDS patients with HIV-NRD have higher risks of developing bilateral visual impairment and even blindness than patients without HIV-NRD. The question remains whether patients with high (>350 cells/μL) nadir CD4 counts and well-suppressed HIV infection on cART remain at risk for HIV-NRD, as this group constitutes a growing part of the aging HIV-infected population.

Prevalence of Intermediate-Stage Age-Related Macular Degeneration in Patients With Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

To evaluate the prevalence of intermediate-stage age-related macular degeneration (AMD) in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Cross-sectional study of patients with AIDS enrolled in the Longitudinal Study of the Ocular Complications of AIDS. Intermediate-stage AMD was determined from enrollment retinal photographs by graders at a centralized Reading Center, using the Age-Related Eye Disease Study grading system. Graders were masked as to clinical data. Of 1825 participants with AIDS and no ocular opportunistic infections, 9.9% had intermediate-stage AMD. Risk factors included age, with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.9 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.6, 2.3, P < .001) for every decade of age; the prevalence of AMD ranged from 4.0% for participants 30-39 years old to 24.3% for participants ≥60 years old. Other risk factors included the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk groups of injection drug use (OR= 2.4, 95% CI 1.5, 3.9, P < .001) or heterosexual contact (OR= 1.9, 95% CI 1.3, 2.8, P= .001). Compared with the HIV-uninfected population in the Beaver Dam Offspring Study, there was an approximate 4-fold increased age-adjusted prevalence of intermediate-stage AMD. Patients with AIDS have an increased age-adjusted prevalence of intermediate-stage AMD compared with that found in a non-HIV-infected cohort evaluated with similar methods. This increased prevalence is consistent with the increased prevalence of other age-related diseases in antiretroviral-treated, immune-restored, HIV-infected persons when compared to non-HIV-infected persons.

Incidence and Long-term Outcomes of the Human Immunodefıciency Virus Neuroretinal Disorder in Patients with AIDS

Patients with AIDS have an abnormality of retina/optic nerve function, manifested as decreased contrast sensitivity (in the absence of ocular opportunistic infections or media opacity), abnormalities on automated perimetry, and loss of retinal nerve fiber layer, even among those with good visual acuity, termed the "human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) neuroretinal disorder." The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence, incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of HIV neuroretinal disorder. Prospective cohort study. A total of 1822 patients with AIDS without ocular infections or media opacities. Patients with HIV neuroretinal disorder were identified by a contrast sensitivity <1.50 log units in either eye in the absence of ocular opportunistic infections or media opacity. Incidence of HIV neuroretinal disorder, mortality, visual impairment (visual acuity ≤20/50), and blindness (≤20/200) on logarithmic visual acuity charts. Sixteen percent of participants had HIV neuroretinal disorder at enrollment. The estimated cumulative incidence by 20 years after AIDS diagnosis was 51% (95% confidence interval [CI], 46-55). Human immunodeficiency virus neuroretinal disorder was more common in women and African Americans. Risk factors for HIV neuroretinal disorder included hepatitis C infection, low CD4+ T cells, and detectable HIV RNA in the blood. Patients with HIV neuroretinal disorder had a 70% excess mortality versus those without it, even after adjusting for CD4+ T cells and HIV load (hazard ratio [HR], 1.7; 95% CI, 1.3-2.1; P < 0.0001). Patients with HIV neuroretinal disorder had increased risks of bilateral visual impairment (HR, 6.5; 95% CI, 2.6-10.6; P < 0.0001) and blindness (HR, 5.9; 95% CI, 2.8-13.7; P = 0.01) versus those without HIV neuroretinal disorder. Human immunodeficiency virus neuroretinal disorder is a common finding among patients with AIDS, and it is associated with an increased mortality and an increased risk of visual impairment. Successful antiretroviral therapy decreases but does not eliminate the risk of HIV neuroretinal disorder.

Risk of Cataract among Subjects with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome Free of Ocular Opportunistic Infections

To evaluate the risk of cataract in the setting of AIDS. Prospective cohort study. Subjects with AIDS free of ocular opportunistic infections throughout catamnesis. From 1998 through 2008, subjects 13 years of age or older were enrolled. Demographic characteristics and clinical characteristics were documented at enrollment and semiannually. Cataract was defined as high-grade lens opacity observed by biomicroscopy judged to be the cause of a best-corrected visual acuity worse than 20/40. Eyes that underwent cataract surgery during follow-up were considered to have developed cataract before the first visit when pseudophakia or aphakia was observed. Among 1606 participants (3212 eyes) at enrollment, 1.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.3%-2.7%) were observed to have cataract or prior cataract surgery. Among the 2812 eyes initially free of cataract and followed longitudinally (median follow-up, 4.6 years), the incidence of cataract was 0.37%/eye-year (95% CI: 0.26%-0.53%). In addition to age, significant cataract risk factors included prior cataract in the contralateral eye (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 21.6; 95% CI: 10.4-44.8), anterior segment inflammation (aHR, 4.40; 95% CI: 1.64-11.9), prior retinal detachment (aHR, 4.94; 95% CI: 2.21-11.0), and vitreous inflammation (aHR, 7.12; 95% CI: 2.02-25.0), each studied as a time-updated characteristic. Detectable human immunodeficiency virus RNA in peripheral blood was associated with lower risk of cataract at enrollment (adjusted odds ratio, 0.32; 95% CI: 0.12-0.80) but not of incident cataract (aHR, 1.58; 95% CI: 0.90-2.76). After adjustment for other factors, neither the then-current absolute CD4+ T-cell count nor antiretroviral therapy status showed consistent association with cataract risk, nor did an additive diagnosis of other comorbidities. Compared with the available population-based studies that used similar definitions of cataract, the age-specific prevalence of cataract in our cohort was higher than in 1 of 2 such studies, and the age-specific incidence of cataract surgery was higher. Our results suggest cataract may occur earlier among patients with AIDS free of ocular opportunistic infections than in the general population. Cataract risk was associated most strongly with age and with other ocular morbidity in this population. With improved survival, the burden of cataract likely will increase for persons with the human immunodeficiency virus or AIDS.

The prevalence and incidence of epiretinal membranes in eyes with inactive extramacular CMV retinitis.

To determine the prevalence and incidence of epiretinal membranes (ERM) in eyes with inactive extramacular cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). A case-control report from a longitudinal multicenter observational study by the Studies of the Ocular Complications of AIDS (SOCA) Research Group. A total of 357 eyes of 270 patients with inactive CMV retinitis and 1084 eyes of 552 patients with no ocular opportunistic infection (OOI) were studied. Stereoscopic views of the posterior pole from fundus photographs were assessed at baseline and year 5 visits for the presence of macular ERM. Generalized estimating equations (GEE) logistic regression was used to compare the prevalence and 5-year incidence of ERM in eyes with and without CMV retinitis at enrollment. Crude and adjusted logistic regression was performed adjusting for possible confounders. Main outcome measures included the prevalence, incidence, estimated prevalence, and incidence odds ratios. The prevalence of ERM at enrollment was 14.8% (53/357) in eyes with CMV retinitis versus 1.8% (19/1084) in eyes with no OOI. The incidence of ERM at 5 years was 18.6% (16/86) in eyes with CMV retinitis versus 2.4% (6/253) in eyes with no OOI. The crude odds ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval, CI) for prevalence was 9.8 (5.5-17.5) (P < 0.01). The crude OR (95% CI) for incidence was 9.4 (3.2-27.9) (P < 0.01). A history of extramacular CMV retinitis is associated with increased prevalence and incidence of ERM formation compared to what is seen in eyes without ocular opportunistic infections in AIDS patients.