Ochre Research Articles

Non-invasive investigation on pigments of the Aeolian Islands Neolithic pottery

The Neolithic painted pottery, spread all over southern Italy, is considered as an important chronological indicator for the development of VI-V millennium BC prehistoric settlements and cultural traditions. The goal of this work is to contribute to the study of this ceramic class through the chemical characterization of some samples coming from the Aeolian Islands. 16 different sherds have been selected and the pigments preserved in their decorations analyzed via non-invasive techniques: Fiber Optical Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), Raman Spectroscopy and Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). The different pigments, some of which no longer clearly visible to the naked eye (red ochre and raw umber) were identified, while the FT-IR data provided information about the pottery differentiation.

Excavation of the Western Suburban Complex of Bol’shoy K’irk-K’iz in 2022

During the 2022 excavation season at the Western Suburban Complex (WSC), work on Room III (Blue Hall) has been continued. Two fragments of pottery discovered there date back to the ancient Chorasmian period. At the -210 and -212 cm levels from the benchmark, a flooring consisting of mud brick pavement was discovered (41–42 × 41–42 cm). The most numerous finds in the 2022 season were fragments of painting, made with glue paint on loess plaster, covered with white loose soil – gypsum in the form of dihydrate. The polarizing microscopy of the composition of paint samples showed that the blue pigment consists of natural ultramarine, the red-brown one is red ocher, and the green paint is made of atacamite (copper hydroxychloride). When Room III had ceased functioning normally, it lost its roof and has been gradually filled with various layers of ground. Judging by the complete absence of animal bones, hearths and/or bonfires, as well as the meager amount of ceramics, secondary habitation of the ruined premises is clearly improbable. The discovered brick pavements are not related to the period of the WSC’s functioning and appeared after the process of destruction of the walls had gone far enough. The last stage of the destruction corresponds to the layer lying on top of the brickwork in the northeast corner of Room III, containing numerous fragments of painted plaster. The lifetime and destruction of the WSC fully corresponds to the ancient Chorasmian period.

A Study on the Alternative Method according to the Mixing of Traditional Material Dancheong Pigment: Focusing on Orpiment and Lead White

Among the traditional dancheong pigments, orpiment and lead white have problems such as toxic properties, unstable supply and demand, and low color stability. Therefore, alternative methods are needed. This study attempted to solve these problems by reducing the amount of orpiment and lead white by mixing other pigments. The specimens were prepared by mixing orpiment with two types of yellow ochre and one each of oyster shell white and white clay. Lead white was mixed with three types of oyster shell white and white clay. Surface changes, chromaticity, and peeling characteristics were observed. When orpiment was mixed with white pigments, the mixture showed a relatively similar to the orpiment color, compared to when mixed with yellow ochre. When orpiment inside the film was discolored, however, the yellow index was reduced by 20 at most, showing a high color difference value. When orpiment was mixed with yellow ochre (5:5), the mixture was observed to have relatively high chromatic stability and durability, compared to when orpiment was solely used. Until the lowest mixing ratio (2:8), showing a similar color to the lead white. Particularly, the more similar the brightness value of white pigments used was to that of lead white, the closer the mixtures became to the chromatic range of lead white. But they showed different aspects of discoloration and peeling, depending on the mixing ratio of media.

CHARACTERIZING THE PAINTED WALL RELIEFS FROM THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ROCK TOMBS OF MEIR AT ASSIUT, EGYPT

The present research was designed to characterize the main components of ancient Egyptian wall reliefs of Meir rock tombs at Assiut of Egypt using severalµ-destructive analytical methods. The microscopic characterization included optical examination on painted surfaces and petrographic examination on thin sections of rock fractions. The morphology of pigments and their chemical structure were investigated by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) was used for the investigation of the molecular composition of the render layer and the blue pigment. The mineralogical composition by X-ray diffractometry (XRD) helped to study the stone, underlying preparation layer, and some pigments. The results showed that the petrographic features of the rock samples are based mainly on fine calcite grains. The identified pigments were Egyptian blue (synthetic cuprorivaite), red ochre (iron oxides and clay minerals), and carbon black. While for the green colour, a mixture of Egyptian blue and yellow ochre was created. Since the materials used in the abovementioned tombs were never been previously analyzed, this research will be a valuable start for a future complex study related to painting materials used in the Meir necropolis of ancient Egypt

Readdressing the Painting Programme of the Church of St. Barbara in the Göreme Valley, Cappadocia

The article focuses on the Church of St. Barbara in the Göreme Valley in Nevşehir, Cappadocia. Today the church is within the borders of the Göreme Open Air Museum which is a cluster of many churches, refectories and additional units. The church is unique with its architectural plan and elaborate nonfigurative elements in red ochre. Painted panels of a secondary phase do not cover up this red paint decoration but they are on the already-vacant parts of the naos. Remarkably, almost all motifs differ from each other in detail or in form. Furthermore, certain compartments of the building are reserved for certain motifs. Thus, it becomes clear that ruddled motifs and compositions can be named as parts of a ‘red ochre painting programme’ in which they are hierarchically arranged in the naos and each of them gain their specifical meaning thanks to the detailing. Such a programme must have been comprehended by the first users and accepted and vindicated by the painters of the second layer. The only church exactly similar to the Church of St. Barbara in its plan type is the Çarıklı Church in close proximity in the same museum. It is interesting that the churches exactly similar in architecture but totally dissimilar in painting programme are coexistent in the Göreme enclave on whose institutional organization so little is known. Still, that the panel paintings did not cover up the detailed red paint decoration indicates that the ruddled programme was approved or appreciated by the hierarchical order of the Göreme enclave. This study intends to examine the nonfigurative repertoire of the region, the architectural plan of the church and intends to shortly evaluate iconoclast and iconophile way of thought on figural imagery. By doing this, the study aims to comment on the meaning the church had in the Göreme circuit, and to hypothesize on the congregation who used the church.

‘Agua-Phobia’ a Necessary Prerequisite for Healing Psoriasis: Proof from Psorolin B

In the present paper we have described the importance of the degree of agua-phobia characteristics of Psorolin B ointment and how such formulation would exceptionally be useful in treating Psoriasis. The ecosystem outside of is high in water (in the form of humidity) and skin also has the property of excreting various waste metabolites through sweat which would eventually both hinder and remove water soluble constituents from skin easily whereas such removal would be low if the constituents are agua-phobic. Scientific aspects of the study methodology and findings are given in detail in the article.
 Keywords: Agua-phobic, hyperkeratotic skin, red ochre, Wrightia tinctoria, boswellic acid

Pigments and Inks Applied in Juan Vespucci’s Portolan Chart (1520)

Not many manuscript maps have been the object of material analysis so far. A portolan chart, signed and dated by Juan Vespucci in 1520, was studied in this research, conserved at the Archivo General de Indias in Seville (Spain). It is made on parchment and depicts the coasts and islands of Europe and Africa. It is the oldest portolan chart made in Seville, being unusual in applying hand stamp for decorative figures. The map was analysed by different non-invasive techniques: infra-red and ultraviolet light, digital microscope and X-ray fluorescence (XRF). The main goals of this study were to identify the materials used, as well as to detect retouching or restoration work. Results showed that the entire parchment was first covered with a white layer made of lead white (Pb), calcite or gypsum (Ca). The principal pigments used were vermilion (Hg), yellow ochre (Fe), azurite (Cu) and a copper-based green pigment (Cu) and carbon black. The letters were probably written with an iron-gall ink (Fe, Cu). Very thin golden leaves were applied on a mixtion glue for gilded wind roses. Several retouches from the 19th/20th centuries were found using zinc and titanium whites and probably cobalt blue.

The Emergence of Habitual Ochre Use in Africa and its Significance for The Development of Ritual Behavior During The Middle Stone Age

Over the last two decades, red ochre has played a pivotal role in discussions about the cognitive and cultural evolution of early modern humans during the African Middle Stone Age. Given the importance of ochre for the scholarly debate about the emergence of ‘behavioral modernity’, the lack of long-term spatio-temporal analyses spanning large geographical areas represents a significant gap in knowledge. Here we take a continent-wide approach, rather than focusing on specific sites, regions or technocomplexes. We report the most comprehensive meta-analysis of ochre use to date, spanning Africa between 500 and 40 thousand years ago, to examine data from more than a hundred archaeological sites. Using methods based on time averaging, we identified three distinct phases of ochre use: the initial phase occurred from 500,000 to 330,000; the emergent phase from 330,000 to 160,000; and the habitual phase from 160,000 to 40,000 years ago. The number of sites with ochre increased with each subsequent phase. More importantly, the ratio of sites with ochre compared to those with only stone artifacts also followed this trend, indicating the increasing intensity of ochre use during the Middle Stone Age. While the geographical distribution expanded with time, the absolute number of ochre finds grew significantly as well, underlining the intensification of ochre use. We determine that ochre use established itself as a habitual cultural practice in southern, eastern and northern Africa starting about 160,000 years ago, when a third of archaeological sites contain ochre. We argue that this pattern is a likely material manifestation of intensifying ritual activity in early populations of Homo sapiens. Such ritual behavior may have facilitated the demographic expansion of early modern humans, first within and eventually beyond the African continent. We discuss the implications of our findings on two models of ritual evolution, the Female Cosmetic Coalitions Hypothesis and the Ecological Stress Hypothesis, as well as a model about the emergence of complex cultural capacities, the Eight-Grade Model for the Evolution and Expansion of Cultural Capacities.

Bio-mechanical property of skin in Psoriasis and Psorolin B

In the present paper we have investigated Psorolin B ointment for improving the bio-mechanical property of the skin. Psorolin B ointment is proprietary Siddha formulation composed of Boswellia serrata, Wrightia tinctoria, Cynodon dactylon, Hydnocarpus laurifolia and red ochre. The bio-mechanical property/elasticity of the skin is evaluated in volar forearm region by four different methods such as applying uniaxial force, centripetal force, vacuum suction and instant retraction by pinch-pull test. The findings clearly showed that Psorolin B ointment improved the skin elasticity and dexterity of the cutaneous tissue. In our previous study we have already established the elastase and collagenase inhibitory effect of Psorolin B and it also possess strong antioxidant effect. The findings are discussed in the article.

Multi-analytical investigations on a tomb mural painting of the Yuan dynasty in Chongqing, China

In this study, we conducted diagnostic research on a precious Yuan dynasty tomb mural painting (A.D.1271–1368) excavated in Chongqing, 2005. To restore the painting, the painting technique and the artwork's preservation state were investigated through optical microscope (OM), portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF), micro-Raman spectroscopy (μ-Raman), macro-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (macro-FTIR), and X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analyses. During this process, the coarse ground, fine ground and painting layer were characterized and analyzed. Experimental results show that the compositions of coarse ground are calcite and soil, while fine ground mainly consists of calcite and a few amounts of silicate. We also investigated and identified the pigments and binders used for the painting layers, which revealed that carbon black was used for the black pigment, cinnabar, red ochre and small amounts of red lead were used for the red pigments. To further investigate the distribution of materials in cross-sections with special attention to trace presented organic material, a FPA detector was used for imaging coupled with a large radius germanium crystal equipped attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy. It has been found that the protein may be used as the binder and organic additive in mural painting. Our work enhances the understanding of the mural painting technique of the Yuan dynasty and also provides a reference for the future restoration work of paintings.

Mineralogical and chemical characterization of ochres used by the Himba and Nama people of Namibia

Ochre is a natural iron oxide earth pigment that can vary from light yellow to intense oranges and to deep reds. Ochre-derived pigments were and continue to be widely used as face and body decoration, sun protection, mosquito repellant, geophagicearths and coloring agents. The Himba and Nama people of Namibia are among modern ethnic groups that still extensively use red and yellow ochre. Eight red ochre samples from Ruacana, northern Namibia and one red and one yellow ochre samples from Keetmanshoop area, southern Namibia used by the Himba and Nama people, respectively were studied by stereomicroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical identification, qualitative scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) for major and trace element abundances. All nine red ochre samples contain hematite, the mineral responsible for the red color of the ochres. Quartz and biotite are also found in nearly all samples. Carbonates, magnetite, apatite, corundum, goethite, feldspar, and kaolinite are found as accessory phases. No hematite was detected in the Nama yellow ochre sample, which contains only goethite. The use of ochre as a geophagic substance by indigenous people of the world is common and consumption of ochre is the most likely route of potential exposure to toxic heavy metals that are found as trace elements in the ochre for the Himba and Nama people. Major and trace element abundances of these ochre samples were determined by ICP-mass spectrometry. The concentrations of the toxic metals (Ac, Cr, Pb) are found to be below permissible levels, thus they do not pose an excessive health risk if applied to human skin or if ingested.

Analysis of Mineral Pigments from the Gnishikadzor Area, Southeastern Armenia

The territory of the Republic of Armenia is very rich with ores and different types of deposits, including resources of natural mineral pigments. They differ by large variation of colours and are represented by painted ores, clays, and earths, among which the most significant is the group of paints with yellow, red and brown shades (ochre). Vayots Dzor Province in South-Eastern Armenia is among the rich areas where painted earths are widely spread. Presence of red and brown ochre are very well visible in the south-western part of the province, in the gorge of the Gnishik River, which is also known as the Noravank Gorge, due to the monastic complex of Noravank located here. Red colour rocks in the area of the Noravank Gorge (Gnishikazdor) represented by the sedimentary strata of the Upper Devonian and are determined by the Famennian Stage (375-359 million years). The samples analysed were taken from the foothills of the Noravank Monastery and analysed by different techniques: Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS); FT-IR spectroscopy; XRD diffraction analysis, which allow to indicate the presence of different elements trough contrast variations (atomic number contrast), to determine spectral ranges where absorption peaks were detected, as well as to perform phase identifications. The results show that the concretion is a hard, compact mass of matter formed by the precipitation of mineral cement within the spaces between particles, and is found in sedimentary rock or soil. It is composed of a carbonate mineral such as calcite; an amorphous or microcrystalline form of silica such as chert, flint, jasper or an iron oxide or hydroxide such as goethite and hematite. Implementation of such kind of study is valuable for the future comparison of similar finds from the nearby prehistoric archaeological contexts, where inhabitants exploited red ochre as a pig.

A multi-analytical evaluation of the depositional pattern on open-air rock art panels at “Abrigo del Lince” (Badajoz, Spain)

Microscopic observation correlated with chemical–mineralogical characterization was performed on pigment samples from “Abrigo del Lince” rock art site (V-IV millennium BC), in order to provide contributions to the study of prehistoric schematic art on granite in the province of Badajoz (Spain). The research objectives include the understanding of technological and cultural aspects, as well as of conservation and deterioration issues related to the pictographs. The multi-analytical approach encompasses the integration of microscopic observation, SEM–EDS analysis, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and ATR-FTIR and allowed to achieve a multispectral overview of the samples and to describe their varied composition and the alteration pattern which connects them. The main phases overlying the granitic bedrock and involved in this sequence are as follows: hematite, whewellite, and gypsum. While hematite could be stratigraphically considered the most ancient layer and assigned to the use of red ochre as a pigment, whewellite and gypsum are the main constituent of the alteration layer which forms a patina over the pictographs, due to weathering processes. Finally, the role of biofilms in rock art conservation is discussed, suggesting that, especially for what concern thin and homogenous layers of oxalates, their presence should not be necessarily considered an issue.

A Study on Painting Characteristics by Analysis of Pigments Used in Unhangak Hall Dancheong in Hwaryeongjeon Shrine, Suwon

A microscopy investigation has been performed together with non-destructive component analysis to verify properties of pigments used in Unhangak Hall Dancheong in Hwaryeongjeon Shrine, Suwon. In addition, X-ray diffraction analysis, polarization microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy analyses were performed on the pigment specimens collected at the site. Dividing the Unhangak interior into areas and performing pigment property analyses has confirmed that the pigments Jusa, Jangdan, and Sukganju (iron oxide, red ocher) have been used for red colors. Jahwang, Gold, and Gamboge (organic pigments) have been used for yellows, the pigments Hayeob, Seokrok, Neorok, Samrok, and Chrome green have been used for greens, and Seogcheong and Heocheong have been used for blues. Baekto, Yeonbaek, Hobun, and Chalk have been used for whites, and Meog has been used for black. The inclusion of Chrome green (a modern pigment) among the pigments used to produce the Dancheong of Unhangak Hall has been confirmed. With this one exception, traditional pigments have been used. One unique property of the dancheong decorating Unhangak Hall include the use of higher than ordinary proportions of Jusa and Hayeob than is ordinarily found in traditional buildings. Another distinction is that expensive pigments including Seogcheong, Heocheong, Seokrok, Jusa, Jahwang, Gold, and Hayeob have been intensively used in worship spaces including the center compartment (Jeongkan) and Nae-hap. These pigments have been used over a coating of white primer (mostly Baekto, Yeonbaek, Hobun or Chalk) to improve choromaticity and color vibrance.

Exploring the private universe of Henri Matisse in The Red Studio

The exhibition Matisse: The Red Studio allowed for an in-depth study of The Red Studio (1911) and six of the works featured in the painting by Henri Matisse (1869–1954) of his studio in Issy-les-Moulineaux near Paris. The grouping includes three paintings from the collection of the Statens Museum for Kunst (Le Luxe II, 1907, Nude with White Scarf, c. 1909, and Bathers, c. 1909), one painting from the collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art (Young Sailor II, 1906), a painting from a private collection (Cyclamen, c. 1911), and a glazed and hand-painted earthenware plate from the collection of the Museum of Modern Art (Untitled (Female Nude), 1907). The six paintings were investigated using technical (X-radiography, ultraviolet-induced fluorescence, infrared reflectography) and chemical imaging (MA-XRF) and, in some cases, spectroscopic techniques (FORS, SEM–EDS, Raman, SERS, and μ-FTIR), to better elucidate Matisse’s materials and working techniques for this selection of paintings; the plate was also analyzed using MA-XRF. New findings revealed the full extent to which Matisse had completed The Red Studio before applying its hallmark color, referred to as Venetian red in his correspondence, over the original palette of blue, pink, and ochre that dominated the composition. Particular attention was given to identifying the wide range of pigment choices made by Matisse in the execution of the works from 1906 and 1911 that are depicted in The Red Studio. These pigments include lead white, zinc white, bone black, earth reds, madder lake, carmine lake, vermilion, cadmium yellow, yellow ochre, aureolin (cobalt) yellow, orpiment, viridian green, chromium-oxide green, cobalt blue, ultramarine blue, Prussian blue, cobalt violet (deep and light), and other cobalt violets, as well as possibly manganese violet and eosin red lake. The results of these analyses allowed for a direct comparison between the original works and their depictions and revealed that Matisse, unsurprisingly given his strong association with color, often translated the pigment choices faithfully between the actual works and their depictions in The Red Studio.

Preservation of microscopic fur, feather, and bast fibers in the Mesolithic ochre grave of Majoonsuo, Eastern Finland.

The study of animal and plant fibers related to grave furnishing, garments, and grave goods in thousands-of-year-old burials provides new insights into these funerary practices. Their preservation presupposes favorable conditions, where bacterial and fungal activity is at a minimum, as in anaerobic, wet, salty, arid, or frozen environments. The extreme acidic-soil environments (i.e., podzols) of Finland pose a challenge when it comes to studying funerary deposits, as human remains are rarely found. However, its potential to preserve microparticles allows us to approach the funerary event from a totally different point of view. Here, we present the first multiproxy analyses of a Mesolithic deposit from Finland. A red-ochre burial of a child found in Majoonsuo is studied by analyzing 1) microscopic fibers, 2) fatty acids, and 3) physical-chemical (CIELab color, pH, grain size) properties of 60 soil samples and associated materials. The microscopic fibers evidenced the remains of waterfowl downy feathers, a falcon feather fragment, canid and small rodent hairs as well as bast fibers. These could have been used in furnishing the grave and as ornaments or clothes. Canid hairs could belong to a dog inhumation, or more likely to canid fur used as grave good/clothes. Samples with microparticles have more long-chain and unsaturated fatty acids, although animal species identification was not possible. Soil properties indicate that the burial was made in the local soil, adding homogeneous red ochre and removing the coarser material; no bioturbation was found. The highly acidic sandy soil, together with a slight increase in finer particles when ochre is abundant, probably resulted in micro-scale, anoxic conditions that prevented bacterial attack. This study reveals the first animal hairs and feathers from a Finnish Mesolithic funerary context, and provides clues about how their preservation was possible.

A study of the artistic corpus of red cave paintings in El Buxu cave (Cangas de Onís, Asturias, Spain)

El Buxu cave, which is located in the village of Cardes (Cangas de Onís, Asturias), has been studied since the 1980s, with multiple excavations taking place inside the cave. This work has uncovered a complete artistic corpus, marking out several phases of occupation, with paintings dating to the first phases of the Upper Palaeolithic, Solutrean and Lower and Middle Magdalenian periods.This paper presents a new review of its rock art, documenting all of the red paintings inside the cave, most of which have never been published up until this point. The most notable inclusion is the new description of a zoomorphic figure painted in red, which has previously been interpreted as an aurochs, but whose features are in fact closer to those of a deer or reindeer.In addition, stratigraphic analysis of some of the paintings has revealed that they are overlapped by Solutrean and Magdalenian engravings and black paintings inside the cave. Elemental analysis was performed on series of red pigments and ochre samples, recovered from various strata using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The resulting dataset was treated using Principal Component Analysis, providing a deeper understanding of the composition of the rock art in El Buxu cave, while uncovering potential correlations between the samples according to their elemental composition.After comparing additional evidences from other red cave paintings in the region with the red pictographs in the cave, along with the stratification of paint pigments and their relationship with the ochre samples in each stratum, it appears that the red paintings comprise the oldest group of pictures inside the cave and can be broadly dated to the pre-Magdalenian cultural period.

Can X-ray Diffraction Distinguish Natural from Anthropogenic Hematite? Replication of the Conversion of Natural Goethite in Both Furnace and Campfire

Hematite, the mineral that gives color to bright red iron ochres, occurs naturally, but there is much evidence that early humans sometimes artificially produced hematite by heating a related mineral, goethite, in wood fires. This represents an important cognitive and technological advance in early human prehistory. Thus, there is a need to distinguish natural hematite from hematite generated by heating goethite in a wood fire. Measuring the line widths of powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) in hematite has been explored, and synthetic goethite heated in a modern furnace has been used as a model system for studying this process. We now show that to be an inappropriate model. Although chemically identical, natural goethite is physically different from and much more variable than goethite produced in a laboratory. Furthermore, by replicating the process using Stone Age technology, we show that heating goethite in a wood fire complicates the interpretation of XRD line widths of the resulting hematite. We conclude that strategies other than powder XRD are necessary to draw conclusions about the ancient processing of iron ochres.

Multi-analytical study of the medieval wall paintings from the rupestrian church Grotta del Crocifisso at Lentini (eastern Sicily): new evidence of the use of woad (Isatis tinctoria)

This study presents the results of the examination and characterisation of the wall paintings that decorate the rupestrian church named Grotta del Crocifisso, which is located in the territory of Lentini (eastern Sicily, few tens of kilometres from Catania and Syracuse). The earliest mural paintings in the church date back to the twelfth century AD. A multi-analytical approach was adopted for the characterisation of stone materials, secondary degradation products, and pigments. For this purpose, the following techniques were used: reflected light microscopy (RLM), polarised light microscopy on thin sections (PLM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), portable X-ray fluorescence (p-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and Raman spectroscopy (RS). The lithic substrate and the plaster’s coating layers were thoroughly characterised from compositional and textural points of view, and the use of locally available raw materials was established. Similarly, the newly formed crystalline phases produced by alteration processes of the original materials were recognised. The red, yellow, brown, and green pigments were easily identified by p-XRF and SEM-EDS. The use of “earth pigments” widely available in the surrounding area (various types of ochre) was thus highlighted. The recognition of the dark blue pigment created some additional issues in its identification, making further diagnostic methods necessary. In fact, the use of the most common mineral pigments was categorically excluded by both p-XRF and SEM-EDS, since no chromophore metallic elements were highlighted with the exception of trace amounts of iron. A combination of detailed microscopic observations together with the application of FTIR and RS supported the use of an organic pigment obtained from the maceration of woad (Isatis tinctoria). The green pigment is the result of a mixture between woad and yellow ochre. Woad is even today easily available in Sicily, and some additional experimental tests were carried out on Isatis tinctoria that had been freshly collected in the area (treated with traditional procedures). Over the past centuries, woad was widely used for dyeing fabrics, but its practice for wall paintings has only been sporadically proven. The identification reported in this case study could be considered a novelty at least in the Sicilian panorama.

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia

Transmission Mysteries: Art and Technophilia