Ocean Policy Research Articles

The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy: An Historical Overview (1997-2005)

witnessed by about 20 members of the administration, including cabinet secretaries and White House and agency officials. Later that day the Commission delivered its report to Senators Earnest Hollings and Ted Stevens, the leading proponents for ocean policy reform in the U.S. Senate. These actions culminated a three-year comprehensive study into virtually all aspects of U.S. ocean policy. In the view of Commissioners, commission staff and advisors, and all the people who participated in and followed the Commission’s work, this was a very important moment. Thirty-five years had passed since the Stratton Commission issued its influential report in 1969 2 and now the U.S. had a new “blueprint” for its ocean affairs for the next decades. 3 The purpose of this article is to begin to describe the history of the Commission’s work. The assumption is that the Commission’s report will influence measurably how the U.S. approaches its ocean and coastal resources, and for this reason it is important to document the Commission and its work. The Commission went out of business officially on December 19, 2004, and the work of implementation passed to others. Part IV of this article shows how federal and state actions have already begun in response to the recommendations of the report. There are many dimensions to this story ‐ historical, legislative, and political. Prior to the initiation of the Commission’s work there was a considerable literature outlining ocean and coastal

Renewing investment in ocean research

AGU supports the integrated research, research infrastructure, and education findings of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. AGU urges immediate development of a comprehensive ocean policy with a holistic approach to ocean environmental health and resource sustainability.In 2004, the United States Government issued the Commission's An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, the government's first comprehensive evaluation of U.S. policies concerning Earth's oceans in 35 years. Since publication of the report, the President has issued an executive order establishing a Committee on Ocean Policy as part of the Council on Environmental Quality, and he has released the U.S. Ocean Action Plan. However, these are only the first of many urgently needed measures.

The Path to Ocean Sciences Literacy: Essential Steps Along the Way

The authors of this manuscript offer perspectives on 1) the status of ocean sciences education within the U.S. over the last two decades; 2) subsequent challenges and opportunities, ranging from the lack of funding to issues and common foci within the ocean sciences community relative to the scientific, engineering, and technological capabilities in ocean research and exploration; and 3) recommended actions and partnerships supported by an array of recent publications addressing ocean science literacy (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2004; National Oceanographic Partnership Program, 2004; U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, 2004; White House, 2004). Four high priority areas are addressed: increased ocean sciences professional development programs for educators, promotion and retention of a diverse ocean sciences workforce, provision of high-quality kindergarten through grade 16 curricula, and enhanced partnerships at all levels within the ocean sciences community. We also offer a summary of benefits that an ocean literate society can offer a nation.

Implementing the Pacific Islands Regional Ocean Policy: How Difficult is it Going to Be?

This article discusses the challenges facing the Pacific region in implementing the Pacific Islands Regional Ocean Policy (PIROP), which aims to ensure sustainable use of the Pacific Ocean’s resources for the future. The author outlines some of the particular issues confronting Pacific Island countries, and the need for a more collaborative approach to ocean management.The five guiding principles of PIROP are then discussed in turn. These include: improving our understanding of the ocean; the sustainable development and management of the ocean’s resources; maintaining the health of the ocean; promoting the peaceful use of the ocean; and creating partnerships and promoting cooperation. Issues such as the protection of traditional knowledge in relation to the ocean, and the need to preserve the integrity of the Pacific’s ecosystems, are highlighted.

Evaluation of the ocean governance system in Korea

Abstract Considering the small land, dense population and poor natural resources, the oceans are important to Korea, but the recognition of oceans has been weak in Korean society. So ocean governance was fragmented in both institution and policies, which resulted in serious problems in the coastal waters and oceans. However, a series of maritime accidents and failures of policies increased the recognition of the coastal waters and resources and led to the establishment of one single ocean-related governmental agency in 1996. Over the last decade, the ocean governance in Korea has been successful and strong. The purpose of this article is to evaluate ocean governance and to discuss opportunities and constraints to oceans policy in Korea, with policy implication that can be shared by the international oceans communities.

Ocean Commissions Unite

Despite two comprehensive, independent assessments of US ocean policy by the Bush-appointed US Commission on Ocean Policy and the independent Pew Ocean Commission few of the recommendations have been adopted in the 2 years since their release, and future reforms remain uncertain. The commissions have now formed a Joint Ocean Initiative to accelerate the pace of change in ocean reform. We have not seen the level of action necessary to avoid the crisis situations found by both commissions, explains Leon Panetta, Director of the Pew Ocean Commission. Ocean reform advocates agree. Says Amanda Leland, Ocean Policy Director for a coalition of environmental nongovernmental organiza-

Power, Control and Denial: Australian Maritime Defence Strategy and Australia’s Oceans Policy

AbstractAustralia relies on the vast surrounding ocean environment for trade, resources, tourism and lifestyle. Australia’s Oceans Policy (AOP) aims to protect this valuable national asset. Nonetheless, maritime threats such as maritime terrorism, illegal fishing and illegal immigration, among others, threaten ocean security. Security provision falls partly to the Australian Defence Force, yet, the goals or responsibilities outlined in AOP are not considered in Defence’s own policy, limiting effective and comprehensive protection of Australia’s ocean. Thus, formal links should arguably be made between AOP and Defence policies to ensure the effective and comprehensive protection of Australia’s vast maritime interests. Such measures will be explored in this article.

Proposed Fisheries Bill Falls Short, Critics Say

U.S. OCEAN POLICYOne year after the second of two U.S. commissions called for an overhaul of the nation's ocean policy, proponents are still waiting for that needed sea change. Instead, what they got was an updated fisheries bill with some promising language but few real teeth.

The Perils of Increased Aquaculture

In a recent opinion piece distributed to U.S. newspapers, Conrad Lautenbacher, the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) argued in favor of the National Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2005 (“A boost for aquaculture?”, Random Samples, 17 June, p. 1738). This Act would give NOAA responsibility for permitting offshore aquaculture operations up to 200 miles from shore in U.S. waters. The arguments in favor of promoting expanded aquaculture include meeting market demand for seafood and decreasing the seafood “trade deficit.” Aquaculture's potential for solving these problems is debatable, and many concerns must still be addressed and acknowledged openly. The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy report ([1][1]) recommended that NOAA serve as the lead agency for permitting an expanded aquaculture program. Although this makes sense, the agency should not overemphasize the potential benefits and downplay the potential hazards, which include serious environmental consequences such as pollution from aquaculture waste, potential marine mammal entanglements, escapement of aquaculture species into the wild, and spread of disease. Furthermore, if we culture carnivorous species that rely on fish meal as a food source, this could have the unintended consequence of increasing fishing pressure on fish meal species. NOAA should not lose sight of the other aquaculture recommendations of the Commission. One of the most important of these is coordination with the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) “to encourage and facilitate worldwide adherence to the aquaculture provisions of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.” Importing food raised through aquaculture from other countries that sacrifice their environments does little to enhance marine ecosystems worldwide. What is most worrisome is what is not being discussed. Many of the important recommendations of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy may face the worst fate of all—being ignored. 1. [↵][2]U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy, An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century Final Report (U.S. Comission on Ocean Policy, Washington, DC, 2004) (see ). [1]: #ref-1 [2]: #xref-ref-1-1 View reference 1 in text

Marine Technology and Policy in 2005: Emerging Opportunities and Challenges

Recent seminal studies of national ocean policy have focused the attention of the marine science and technology communities on the possibility of outcomes in the near future. The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy offered over two hundred recommendations, and has raised expectations for a period of heightened ocean interest. In response to the policy recommendations of the Commission, the President has set certain policies through his December 2004 Executive Order on Ocean Policy and through the issuance of the U.S. Ocean Action Plan. This Plan holds promise for the technology community. With the opportunities of technology advancement, however, come the uncertainties of change. Using the Integrated Ocean Observing System as an example of beneficial change, both in collection methodologies and integration of science data, and in proposing the legal complexities of Autonomous Undersea Vehicle strandings and unwanted recovery, the authors demonstrate examples of the benefits and uncertainties ahead, all of which comprise opportunity.

COMMENTARY | The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy and the White House Ocean Action Plan—An Update

COMMENTARY | The U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy and the White House Ocean Action Plan—An Update

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles: Trends and Transformations

Three examples of inter-agency cooperation utilizing current generation, individual Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are described consistent with recent recommendations of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy. The first steps in transforming individual AUVs into adaptive, networked systems are underway. To realize an affordable and deployable system, a network-class AUV must be designed with cost–size constraints not necessarily applied in developing solo AUVs. Vehicle types are suggested based on function and ocean operating regime: surface layer, interior and bottom layer. Implications for platform, navigation and control subsystems are explored and practical formulations for autonomy and intelligence are postulated for comparing performance and judging behavior. Laws and conventions governing intelligent maritime navigation are reviewed and an autonomous controller with conventional collision avoidance behavior is described. Network-class cost constraints can be achieved through economies of scale. Productivity and efficiency in AUV manufacturing will increase if constructive competition is maintained. Constructive strategies include interface and operating standards. Professional societies and industry trade groups have a leadership role to play in establishing public, open standards.

The South East Regional Marine Plan: Implementing Australia's Oceans Policy

In 1998, the Australian Government released Australia's Oceans Policy (AOP), a world first policy initiative focused on providing a framework for integrated ecosystem-based management of Australia's vast marine domain. The South East Regional Marine Plan, the first regional marine plan to be implemented under AOP, was released on 21 May 2004. This paper argues that although full integration across sectors and jurisdictions has not occurred, new AOP initiatives, institutions and governance processes have considerably increased sectoral and jurisdictional coordination in the South East region.

A Blueprint for the Oceans: Implications of Two National Commission Reports for Conservation Practitioners

Abstract: In the first comprehensive reviews since 1969, two high‐level reports on the status of U.S. marine ecosystems and resources have been released: that of the nongovernmental Pew Oceans Commission in 2003 and that of the congressionally mandated U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy in 2004. Although the two commissions differed in the breadth and depth of their mandates, their findings on the state of our oceans and need for new management approaches are similar, and their major recommendations for science, governance, management and conservation, and education echo and reinforce each other. The history behind the two commissions and the structure and objectives of each remind us of the crucial roles conservation practitioners and scientists must play in the implementation of report recommendations. The reports suggest priorities for conservation practitioners to improve science, management, conservation, governance, and education to better manage and protect ocean resources and ecosystems. To redirect activities affecting the state of global marine resources, integrated research; education and outreach by terrestrial, aquatic, and marine conservation practitioners; and a clear definition of their roles in the implementation of recommendations is essential. Marine ecosystems provide a test case of society's ability to manage complexity in human and natural systems in an integrated manner, with extensive opportunities for participation by conservation practitioners from all disciplines.

Bill provides clear mandate for NOAA

The Science Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives on 17 May approved the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Act (House Resolution 50), a bill to clarify and codify the agency's functions and responsibilities. The legislation now awaits action by the full House.NOAA was created by Executive Order in 1970, and since then has operated without a clear mandate from Congress on what its role and responsibilities should be. Passage of a NOAA organic act was a key recommendation of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy.

Executive Order Creates New Mechanism to Coordinate U. S. Oceans Policy

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America’s Oceans: A Blueprint for the Future

The nation’s coasts and oceans are undervalued as an economic force, their ecological value is often misunderstood, and as a resource they are often poorly managed. Around the nation, coastal communities are growing at an explosive pace, but the federal government has struggled to respond, shackled by a fractured system of responsibility and authority over coastal and marine ecosystems. On many key issues in federal ocean policy, there has been a sense of partial paralysis. That’s according to the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy’s final report released on 20 September 2004. Calling for measures to repair the nation’s ocean governance system, the commission sent its report, An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century, to President Bush and Congress. Responding to the commission, President Bush signed an executive order in December 2004 to create the Committee on Ocean Policy, which will oversee the nation’s ocean and coastal management. The report offers the most comprehensive national assessment of U.S. oceans in 35 years, since the 1969 report of the Stratton Commission. That commission was created by Congress to provide a comprehensive assessment of U.S. ocean policy. Since that earlier report was issued, however, the federal government has taken what the latest report calls an “ad hoc approach” to ocean and coastal policy. In the 1970s, new federal laws including the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act and the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) addressed urgent needs, but, says the report, they lacked an overarching vision critical to a coherent national ocean policy. Today, more than 55 congressional committees and subcommittees oversee at least 20 federal agencies and permanent commissions that implement more than 140 federal ocean-related laws. Federal agencies usually regulate separately each industrial sector in marine and coastal zones—if sectors are regulated at all. Local and state agencies, moreover, manage resources according to traditional political boundaries, not according to ecosystem boundaries such as watersheds. But ecosystems don’t stop at political boundaries, and mismanagement in one area can affect many other areas, too. Dozens of agencies and jurisdictions, often working separately, are responsible for managing land uses and impacts in coastal areas and related offshore marine areas. In 2001, President Bush appointed the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy—a mix of 16 academics, business executives, and naval officers—to make recommendations on how to improve the capacity of the nation to manage ocean- and coast-related activities. On 20 April 2004, the commission released a preliminary report to state governors and the public for comment. Once all comments were considered, the commission delivered the final report with 212 recommendations and formally disbanded, having discharged its duty. Its findings are grim—the commissioners write that the failure to properly manage the nation’s coasts and oceans is “compromising [these resources’] ecological integrity, diminishing our ability to fully realize their potential, costing us jobs and revenue, threatening human health, and putting our future at risk.”

Centers for Oceans and Human Health

The NIEHS and the National Science Foundation (NSF) have collaboratively launched four new Centers for Oceans and Human Health and in doing so have established a new paradigm for linking the health and rich resources of the Earth’s oceans with the health outcomes of the Earth’s population. This program offers tremendous promise for developing more comprehensive linkages between oceans and human health as the world’s population continues to depend on one of our greatest natural resources for food, commerce, transportation, and recreation. It harnesses the various talents, disciplines, and expertise of scientists supported by the collaborating agencies. It combines the tools of genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics with physical oceanography. It also stimulates intercenter cooperation and coordination. Supported by the physical and biological science resources of the NSF and the NIEHS, the centers also demonstrate the capacity of federal research agencies to collaborate and leverage resources to foster high-quality interdisciplinary research. This novel, groundbreaking interagency effort fulfills one of the key recommendations of the 2004 report An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century: Final Report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy—to encourage interdisciplinary marine biomedical research to improve our understanding of the links between oceans and human health. [For more information on An Ocean Blueprint, see “America’s Oceans: A Blueprint for the Future,” p. A106 this issue.] In coming years, these NIEHS–NSF Centers for Oceans and Human Health will serve as models of the interaction between the life and physical sciences as well as of federal coordination. The program further serves as a model for interagency cooperation and the development of additional programs by federal agencies to address the links between oceans and human health. The four centers are located at the University of Washington, the University of Hawaii, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, and the University of Miami. These centers are using oceanographic chemistry, genomics, proteomics, risk prevention, and public health approaches to address three specific areas in oceans and human health research: harmful algal blooms, water- and vectorborne pathogens, and the derivation of marine biopharmaceuticals. The first annual meeting of the center directors was held in January 2005 and hosted by the University of Miami. The theme for this meeting was the exploration of opportunities for intercenter collaboration, leveraging, and synergy, as well as the pursuit of potential collaborative opportunities within initiatives sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency and the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration.

Public ocean literacy in the United States

The 2004 Pew Ocean Commission report suggests a need to improve public literacy about oceans. The authors of the report assume that enhancing public awareness and knowledge of oceans will lead to increased public support for ocean restoration efforts. Following this line of reasoning, our study investigates current levels of public knowledge and informedness concerning oceans, and also explores the correlates of knowledge holding. Using data gathered from a national random sample of 1233 citizens in Summer/Fall 2003, two hypotheses—trans-situational and situation-specific—are examined as explanations of public knowledge levels concerning ocean policy issues. The trans-situational hypothesis evaluates socioeconomic status (SES) as an explanation for levels of knowledge. The situation-specific hypothesis evaluates personal experiences and contexts that might overcome SES characteristics. We also examine the effect of information source use on knowledge holding. Findings suggest that both trans-situational and situation-specific hypotheses are useful in explaining knowledge levels. We also find that information sources, such as newspapers and the internet, are likely to improve citizen knowledge on ocean issues, while television and radio have a negative effect.

An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century: The Work of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy

The paper reviews the report of the U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy that reflects the input of hundreds of people from across the nation, testimony from many of the world's leading experts and months of deliberation. The report contains recommendations to set the course toward a future in which oceans, coasts, and Great Lakes are healthy and America's marine resources are restored and sustained for the future generations. Presented is a new national ocean policy that will balance ocean use with sustainability, that is based on sound science and supported by excellent education, and is overseen by a coordinated system of governance with strong leadership at national and regional levels.