Occurrence Of Toxins Research Articles

Occurrence and Seasonal Variations of Lipophilic Marine Toxins in Commercial Clam Species along the Coast of Jiangsu, China.

Recent studies have examined lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs) in shellfish and toxic algae worldwide, but the occurrence and seasonal variations of LMTs in commercial clams (including Mactra veneriformis, Ruditapes philippinarum, Meretrix meretrix, and Cyclina sinensis) at their major culturing area in Jiangsu, China, remain largely unexplored. In this study, a new solid phase extraction (SPE) in combination with an ultra-fast liquid chromatography and triple-quadrupole linear ion trap mass spectrometry (UFLC-TQ-MS) method was developed to determine the presence of 10 typical LMTs (okadaic acid (OA), yessotoxins (YTXs), azaspiracids (AZA1-3), pectenotoxins (PTX2), gymnodimine (GYM), dinophysistoxins (DTX1&2), and spirolides (SPX1)) in the aforementioned four clam matrices. After confirmation of its sensitivity and precision, this method was used to evaluate the amounts of LMTs in clam samples harvested in five aquaculture zones of the Jiangsu coastal area. Monthly variations of GYM, PTX2, OA, and DTX1&2 in 400 clam samples from the sample areas were determined from January 2014 through August 2015. Peak values were observed during May and August. This is the first systematic report of LMTs detected in clam samples harvested in Jiangsu. Follow-up research and the implementation of protective measures are needed to ensure the safety of clams harvested in this area.

A 4700-Year History of Cyanobacteria Toxin Production in a Shallow Subtropical Lake

Cyanobacterial toxins or cyanotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by cyanobacteria and are found in water bodies around the world causing negative effects on aquatic ecosystems and human health. There are numerous environmental and biological triggers for toxin production, and the ecological role of most toxins is still being determined. Whereas cyanobacterial toxin occurrence appears to be expanding and monitoring efforts have increased in recent years, the history of toxin existence in lakes is poorly understood. Here, I report the history of the cyanotoxin, cylindrospermopsin (CYN), in sediments of hypereutrophic Lake Griffin, Florida, USA, from approximately 4700 years ago to present. The record includes three periods of toxin abundance: one associated with recent, European settlement in the watershed, and the other two during the middle to late Holocene, prior to human impacts on the lake. Each period corresponds to changes in different paleolimnological measurements suggesting drivers of CYN production have varied through time. This CYN record demonstrates the use of sediment toxin concentrations as a tool to reconstruct historic cyanobacterial toxin occurrence and shows that toxin production can occur independent of anthropogenic stressors.

English

Cassava chips are transformed products obtained following the fermentation and drying of cassava fresh roots. Once produced, chips can be stored for more than 180 days in conditions conducive for the development of toxigenic moulds. In this study, the incidence of Fusarium spp. is assessed from a set of 72 home-stored samples of cassava chips collected from farmers, during a 2-month monitoring survey period. Results from this survey enabled the recovery of 298 isolates of Fusarium spp. The Fusarium taxa detected included: Fusarium chlamydosporum, Fusarium equiseti, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium pallidoroseum and Fusarium solani. F. oxysporum was associated with the highest level of isolation frequency (25%), whereas F. solani isolated was scanty (5%). Their level of recovery was increasingly important as the moisture content of samples increased and/or the product was stored for longer periods. Specific associations were observed to exist between the most frequently isolated Fusarium spp. The level of fumonisins further assessed showed that only 5 samples hosted this mycotoxin at concentration levels ranging between 0.22 and 1.7 mg/kg. Among the parameters used to assess its incidence, only storage duration showed significant (P<0.05) relationships with fumonisins. The occurrence of fumonisins as natural contaminants of cassava-based products is reported here for the first time. This study shows that no known fumonisin producing-Fusarium species was related to toxin occurrence in the samples collected. It can be hypothesized that any species of Fusarium infesting the samples studied could have the potential capability of producing the toxin as a result of a possible horizontal transfer of functional fumonisin gene clusters from an ancestral gene. Consequently, the present study suggests both investigations on genes responsible for plausible fumonisin formation associated with the Fusarium spp. identified from the samples collected as well as the various factors allowing their expression. Key words: Fusarium, fumonisins, cassava chips, Cameroon, rural areas.

Incidence of Toxin Producing Bacteria in Milk and Milk Products

Milk and milk products is a very good source to support the growth of microorganism. Their presence may cause health hazards. Considering its unhygienic aspects in view, the present study was undertaken to judge the occurrence of toxin producing microorganism. A good number of milk, curd, ice-cream and khoa samples supplied to Tura town (Head quarter of District West Garo Hills, Meghalaya) were assessed for their total bacterial, clostridial and staphylococal counts. Out of total clostridia and total coagulase positive staphylococcus count about twenty percent were identified as clostridium botulinam and ninety percent as staphylococcus aureus respectively. These isolates, pure and identified cultures of these organisms were incubated in litmus milk for one week for production of toxins. Heat stability of toxins were determined by heating the inoculates at 75, 85, and 100.c for five minutes. Toxicity of toxins produced by these microorganisms was tested by intra peritoneal injection and orally feeding to mice and seen that 1.5 c.c intra peritoneal injection was lethal dose. Heating of inoculates at 85.c for five minutes has partially inactivated botulinam toxin, whereas it has not effected staphylococcus enterotoxin. Heating at 100.c for five minutes has completely inactivated botulinam and partially inactivated staphylococcal enterotoxin. It can be concluded from the experimental results that the bacteriological quality of milk and milk products supplied to

Occurrence and profiles of lipophilic toxins in shellfish harvested from Argentina.

The presence of phytoplankton responsible for the production of lipophilic marine biotoxins is well recognised throughout parts of South America. To date, the quantitation of lipophilic toxins in Argentinean shellfish has been limited to select and highly focussed geographical studies. This work reports the analysis for lipophilic marine biotoxins in shellfish harvested across five regions of Argentina between 1992 and 2012. LC-MS/MS analysis was used for the quantitation of all regulated lipophilic toxins. High concentrations of okadaic acid group toxins were quantified, with a clear dominance of the parent okadaic acid and more than 90% of the toxin present as esters. Results showed DSP toxins in shellfish from the Buenos Aires Province during 2006 and 2007, earlier than previously described. There was also strong evidence linking the presence of okadaic acid to human intoxications. Other lipophilic toxins detected were yessotoxin, pectenotoxin-2 and 13-desMeC spirolide. With evidence published recently for the presence of azaspiracid producers, this work reports the detection of low concentrations of azaspiracid-2 in shellfish. As such the data provides the first published evidence for yessotoxins and azaspiracids in Argentinean shellfish and further evidence for the continuing presence of lipophilic marine toxins in Argentinean waters.

Occurrence of cyanobacteria and microcystin toxins in raw and treated waters of the Nile River, Egypt: implication for water treatment and human health.

Monitoring of cyanobacteria and their associated toxins has intensified in raw water sources of drinking water treatment plants (WTPs) in most countries of the world. However, it is not explored yet for Egyptian WTPs. Therefore, this study was undertaken to investigate the occurrence of cyanobacteria and their microcystin (MC) toxins in the Nile River source water of Damietta WTP during warm months (April-September 2013) and to evaluate the removal efficiency of both cyanobacterial cells and MCs by conventional methods used in this plant as a representative of Egyptian drinking WTPs. The results showed that the source water at the intake of Damietta WTP contained dense cyanobacterial population (1.1-6.6 × 107 cells L(-1)) dominated by Microcystis aeruginosa. This bloom was found to produce MC-RR and MC-LR. Both cyanobacterial cell density and intracellular MCs in the intake source water increased with the increase in temperature and nutrients during the study period, with maximum values obtained in August. During treatment processes, cyanobacterial cells were incompletely removed by coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation (C/F/S; 91-96.8%) or sand filtration (93.3-98.9%). Coagulation/flocculation induced the release of MCs into the ambient water, and the toxins were not completely removed or degraded during further treatment stages (filtration and chlorination). MCs in outflow tank water were detected in high concentrations (1.1-3.6 μg L - 1), exceeding WHO provisional guideline value of 1 μg L - 1 for MC-LR in drinking water. Based on this study, regular monitoring of cyanobacteria and their cyanotoxins in the intake source water and at different stages at all WTPs is necessary to provide safe drinking water to consumers or to prevent exposure of consumers to hazardous cyanobacterial metabolites.

Occurrence of lipophilic marine toxins in shellfish from Galicia (NW of Spain) and synergies among them.

Lipophilic marine toxins pose a serious threat for consumers and an enormous economic problem for shellfish producers. Synergistic interaction among toxins may play an important role in the toxicity of shellfish and consequently in human intoxications. In order to study the toxic profile of molluscs, sampled during toxic episodes occurring in different locations in Galicia in 2014, shellfish were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), the official method for the detection of lipophilic toxins. The performance of this procedure was demonstrated to be fit for purpose and was validated in house following European guidelines. The vast majority of toxins present in shellfish belonged to the okadaic acid (OA) group and some samples from a particular area contained yessotoxin (YTX). Since these toxins occur very often with other lipophilic toxins, we evaluated the potential interactions among them. A human neuroblastoma cell line was used to study the possible synergies of OA with other lipophilic toxins. Results show that combination of OA with dinophysistoxin 2 (DTX2) or YTX enhances the toxicity triggered by OA, decreasing cell viability and cell proliferation, depending on the toxin concentration and incubation time. The effects of other lipophilic toxins as 13-desmethyl Spirolide C were also evaluated in vitro.

Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 contamination in ground red peppers commercialized in Sanliurfa, Turkey.

Aflatoxins (AFs) are hepatogenic, teratogenic, imunosuppressive, and carcinogenic fungal metabolites found in feeds, nuts, wine-grapes, spices, and other grain crops. Humans are exposed to AFs via consumption of mycotoxin-contaminated foods. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of AF contamination in powdered red peppers sold in Sanliurfa. A total of 42 samples were randomly collected from retail shops, supermarkets, open bazaars, and apiaries and examined for the occurrence and levels of AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2 toxins. AFs were determined by using an HPLC system after pre-separation utilizing immunoaffinity columns. AFs levels were below 2.5μg/kg in 16 samples, between 2.5 and 10μg/kg in 13 samples while 13 samples had AFs higher than the tolerable limit (10μg/kg) according to the regulations of Turkish Food Codex and European Commission. The occurrence of AF fractions during powdered red pepper processing steps was also evaluated. According to the results obtained in this study, it was found that the highest AF accumulations in powdered red peppers start during perspiration and final drying of the products processed on soil contacted surfaces while there was no limit exceeding aflatoxin contamination in the samples produced on concrete surfaces.

Insights into embryo defenses of the invasive apple snail Pomacea canaliculata: egg mass ingestion affects rat intestine morphology and growth.

BackgroundThe spread of the invasive snail Pomacea canaliculata is expanding the rat lungworm disease beyond its native range. Their toxic eggs have virtually no predators and unusual defenses including a neurotoxic lectin and a proteinase inhibitor, presumably advertised by a warning coloration. We explored the effect of egg perivitellin fluid (PVF) ingestion on the rat small intestine morphology and physiology.Methodology/Principal FindingsThrough a combination of biochemical, histochemical, histopathological, scanning electron microscopy, cell culture and feeding experiments, we analyzed intestinal morphology, growth rate, hemaglutinating activity, cytotoxicity and cell proliferation after oral administration of PVF to rats. PVF adversely affects small intestine metabolism and morphology and consequently the standard growth rate, presumably by lectin-like proteins, as suggested by PVF hemaglutinating activity and its cytotoxic effect on Caco-2 cell culture. Short-term effects of ingested PVF were studied in growing rats. PVF-supplemented diet induced the appearance of shorter and wider villi as well as fused villi. This was associated with changes in glycoconjugate expression, increased cell proliferation at crypt base, and hypertrophic mucosal growth. This resulted in a decreased absorptive surface after 3 days of treatment and a diminished rat growth rate that reverted to normal after the fourth day of treatment. Longer exposure to PVF induced a time-dependent lengthening of the small intestine while switching to a control diet restored intestine length and morphology after 4 days.Conclusions/SignificanceIngestion of PVF rapidly limits the ability of potential predators to absorb nutrients by inducing large, reversible changes in intestinal morphology and growth rate. The occurrence of toxins that affect intestinal morphology and absorption is a strategy against predation not recognized among animals before. Remarkably, this defense is rather similar to the toxic effect of plant antipredator strategies. This defense mechanism may explain the near absence of predators of apple snail eggs.

Detection, occurrence and monthly variations of typical lipophilic marine toxins associated with diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in the coastal seawater of Qingdao City, China

In recent years, related research has mainly examined lipophilic marine toxins (LMTs) in contaminated bivalves or toxic algae, whereas the levels of LMTs in seawater remain largely unexplored. Okadaic acid (OA), yessotoxin (YTX), and pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2) are three typical LMTs produced by certain marine algae that are closely linked to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning. In this study, a new method of solid phase extraction combined with liquid chromatography – electrospray ionization ion trap tandem mass spectrometry was developed to determine the presence of OA, YTX, and PTX2 in seawater simultaneously. Satisfactory sensitivity, repeatability (RSD<25.00%) and recovery (56.25–70.18%) of the method were achieved. Then, the method was applied to determine the amounts of the three toxins in the coastal seawater. OA and PTX2 were detected in all the seawater samples collected from eight locations along the coastline of Qingdao City, China on October 23, 2012, with concentration ranges of OA 4.24–9.64ngL−1 and PTX2 0.42–0.74ngL−1. Monthly concentrations of OA and PTX2 in the seawater of four locations were determined over the course of a year, with concentration ranges of OA 1.41–89.52ngL−1 and PTX2 below detectable limit to 1.70ngL−1. The peak values of OA and PTX2 in coastal seawater were observed in August and July, respectively. Our results suggest that follow-up research on the fate modeling and risk assessment of LMTs in coastal seawater should be implemented.

Survey of cyanobacterial toxins in Czech water reservoirs—the first observation of neurotoxic saxitoxins

The environmental occurrence and concentrations of cyanobacterial toxins (cyanotoxins) were investigated in the Czech Republic. Concentrations of microcystins (MCs), cylindrospermopsin (CYN) or saxitoxins (STXs) were determined immunochemically by ELISA assays in 30 water samples collected from the surface layers of 19 reservoirs during the summer season of 2010. MCs were detected in 18 reservoirs and 83 % of samples, with median and maximal concentration being 1.5 and 18.6 μg/L, respectively. The high frequency of MC occurrence coincided with prevalence of cyanobacterium Microcystis sp., which was detected in 87 % samples, followed by Dolichospermum (Anabaena) sp. observed in 33 % samples. CYN was detected by ELISA only in one sample at a concentration of 1.2 μg/L. STXs presence was indicated for the first time in Czech water reservoirs when the toxins were found at low concentrations (0.03-0.04 μg/L) in two samples (7 %) collected from two different reservoirs, where STXs co-occurred with MCs and eventually also with CYN. In both STX-positive samples, the phytoplankton community was dominated by Microcystis sp., but Dolichospermum sp. and/or Aphanizomenon sp. were also present as putative producers of STX and/or CYN. Cyanotoxins commonly occurred in Czech water reservoirs, and MCs frequently at concentrations possibly associated with human health risks. MCs were the most prevalent and abundant cyanotoxins, but also other cyanotoxins were detected, though sporadically. Further research and regulatory monitoring of cyanotoxins other than MCs is therefore required.

Brain and Liver Histopathological Examination of Carassius gibelio from A Newly Reconstructed Lake with Toxic Cyanobacteria

Lake Karla, Greece, is a partially reconstructed lake. The lake's water filling process started in September 2009. Existing evidence based on the prevailing microorganisms and cyanotoxin levels in the lake in 2010 suggested that the lake could have a negative effect on its biota. By investigating whether Carassius gibelio individuals bear brain and liver histopathological findings, this study complements the data now available from the first year of L. Karla's reconstruction. Based on the 16S rRNA gene diversity, the potentially toxic cyanobacteria Anabaenopsis sp. and Planktothrix were shown to be present in the lake's water in May 2011. C. gibelio specimens were collected a month later. Histopathological alterations in the liver of the individuals, namely picnotic nuclei, loss of structure and hemorrhagic regions, were detected by microscopic examination. Picnotic nuclei, loss of the liver structure and hemorrhagic regions were detected. These alterations may be associated with the occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins possibly produced by the potentially toxic cyanobacterial species found in the water column. No alterations were found in the brain, probably due to the existence of the blood-brain barrier.

Variability of paralytic shellfish toxin occurrence and profiles in bivalve molluscs from Great Britain from official control monitoring as determined by pre-column oxidation liquid chromatography and implications for applying immunochemical tests

As the official control monitoring laboratory in Great Britain for the analysis of marine biotoxins in shellfish, Cefas have for the past five years conducted routine monitoring for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins (PST) using a non-animal alternative method to the mouse bioassay reference method; a refined version of the AOAC 2005.06 pre-column oxidation liquid chromatography method. Application of this instrumental methodology has enabled the generation of data not only on the occurrence and magnitude of PST events, but also the quantitation and assessment of different PST profiles. Since implementation of the method in 2008, results have shown huge variabilities in the occurrence of PSTs, with large spatial and temporal variabilities around the coastline. Mean PST profiles were not found to correlate either with total PST content of the shellfish, the year of sampling or with a few notable exceptions, the shellfish species. Toxin profiles were found to fall into one of four distinct profile types, with one relating solely to the exclusive presence of decarbamoyl toxins in surf clams. The other profile types contained variable proportions of gonyautoxins, N-sulfocarbamoyl toxins, neosaxitoxin and saxitoxin. While some indications of geographical repeatability were noted, this was not observed for all profile types. Consequently, the application of rapid immunochemical testing methods to end product testing would need to be considered carefully given the large differences in PST congener cross-reactivities.

Multicoloured greenbeards, bacteriocin diversity and the rock‐paper‐scissors game

Greenbeard genes identify copies of themselves in other individuals and cause their bearer to behave nepotistically towards those individuals. Bacterial toxins (bacteriocins) exemplify the greenbeard effect because producer strains carry closely linked genes for immunity, such that toxicity is limited to nonproducer strains. Bacteriocin producers can be maintained in a dynamic polymorphism, known as rock-paper-scissors (RPS) dynamics, with immune and susceptible strains. However, it is unclear whether and how such dynamics will be maintained in the presence of multiple toxin types (multiple beard 'colours'). Here, we analyse strain dynamics using models of recurrent patch colonization and population growth. We find that (i) polymorphism is promoted by a small number of founding lineages per patch, strong local resource competition and the occurrence of mutations; (ii) polymorphism can be static or dynamic, depending on the intensity of local interactions and the costs of toxins and immunity; (iii) the occurrence of multiple toxins can promote RPS dynamics; and (iv) strain diversity can be maintained even when toxins differ in toxicity or lineages can exhibit multitoxicity/multi-immunity. Overall, the factors that maintain simple RPS dynamics can also promote the coexistence of multiple toxin types (multiple beard colours), thus helping to explain the remarkable levels of bacteriocin diversity in nature. More generally, we contrast these results with the maintenance of marker diversity in genetic kin recognition.

마비성패류독소 분석을 위한 Precolumn HPLC Oxidation 법의 유효성 검증

To prevent paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) due to the consumption of shellfish contaminated with PSP toxins, the quantitative analysis of these toxins is very crucial. The AOAC International mouse bioassay (MBA) has been used widely for the routine monitoring of PSP toxins for more than 50 years. However, this method has low sensitivity and high limit of quantification (LOQ) and interferences from other components in the extract, and it cannot determine toxic profiles. Ethical problems also exist with the continued use of this live mouse assay. To establish an alternative method to the MBA used for PSP toxins analysis, we attempted to optimize the analysis conditions of a precolumn high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) oxidation method and succeeded in validating its accuracy and precision in quantifying PSP toxins. A clear peak and the isolation of PSP toxins were obtained by injecting the working standards of Certified Reference Materials using HPLC. The LOQ of the precolumn HPLC oxidation method for PSP toxins was about <TEX>$0.1002{\mu}g/g$</TEX>, which represented an approximately fourfold improvement in detection capability versus the AOAC MBA. The intra-accuracy and precision for PSP toxins in oysters were 77.0-103.3% and 2.0-5.7%, respectively, while the respective inter-accuracy and precision were 77.3-100.7% and 2.4-6.0%. The mean recoveries of PSP toxins from oysters were 75.2-112.1%. The results of a comparison study showed good correlation between the results of the precolumn HPLC oxidation method and those of MBA, with a correlation factor of 0.9291 for mussels. The precolumn HPLC oxidation method may be used as an alternative to, or supplementary method with, MBA to monitor the occurrence of PSP toxins and to analyze the profiles of these toxins in shellfish.

Determination of microcystins in reservoirs of different basins in a semiarid area

Intracellular benthic microcystins and microcystins dissolved in water were detected in seven reservoirs in the Segura and Jucar basins located in a semiarid area in the province of Alicante (SE, Spain). Three varieties of intracellular benthic microcystins were identified: Mc-LR, Mc-RR and Mc-YR. Generally, all the microcystin varieties were present in the same reservoir and Mc-LR, considered the most powerful carcinogen known, predominated in most of them. Total microcystins absolute values per dry weight varied from 0.055 μg g−1 in the Elx reservoir in summer to 1.032 μg g−1 in the Crevillent reservoir in spring. Microcystins dissolved in water were not frequent in the reservoirs and were detected in Guadalest throughout the year, with values of between 0.041 and 0.069 ppb. In the Crevillent reservoir, dissolved microcystins were recorded only in summer with 0.163 ppb and were not recorded in the other reservoirs in any season. The cyanobacterial presence varied throughout the year, but no significant difference was seen for interseasonal microcystins production (ANOVA, p > 0.1). The principal component analysis (PCA) and Pearson's correlation coefficient results showed that physico-chemical parameters did not significantly account for both intracellular and dissolved microcystins occurrence. Moreover, the PCA indicated that the evolution of the concentrations of dissolved and intracellular microcystins followed different patterns. The fact that benthic organisms could release intracellular toxins into water may be due to stress caused by changes in water levels and by colonies’ senescence. However, they may also perform antigrazing and/or allelopatic functions. A significant difference was found for conductivity, phosphates and the presence of microcystins Mc-LR and Mc-Tot in the oligo- and eutrophic reservoirs (t test, p 0.1). In fact, microcystins were never detected in the more eutrophic reservoirs, e.g. Tibi and Beniarres, both of which correspond to the River Jucar basin. This fact indicates a significant difference for conductivity and the presence of microcystins Mc-RR (t test, p < 0.1) between the River Segura basin and that of the River Jucar. The identification of microcystins in benthic cyanobacteria from the less eutrophic semiarid studied reservoirs showed that hepatotoxin production was restricted to neither planktonic species nor the physico-chemical parameters considered typical for the occurrence of cyanobacterial toxins.

Thirty-five Years of Research on Deoxynivalenol, a Trichothecene Mycotoxin: with Special Reference to Its Discovery and Co-occurrence with Nivalenol in Japan

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a trichothecene mycotoxin, was characterized together with nivalenol (NIV) from naturally infected wheat and barley grains of the 1970 epidemic in Kagawa**, Japan. DON, 3-acetyl-DON (3-ADON) and 3,15-diacetyl-DON (3,15-DADON) were identified as metabolites of Fusarium roseum No.117 (=F. graminearum ATCC 28114), a toxic isolate from the cereals of the 1970 epidemic, and their toxicological properties in animals, including acute toxicity, emetic activity, and in vivo de-epoxydation metabolism into DOM-1 (deepoxy-DON), were elucidated. Natural co-occurrence of DON and NIV in the domestic cereals was found to be common not only in southern Japan but also in other regions, and the geographic difference in the occurrence of both toxins in Japan was elucidated. In terms of mycotoxigenicity, F. graminearum strains isolated from crop fields were divided into two types: DON- and NIV-producers, and DON-producer was further subdivided into two subtypes, 3-ADON- and 15-acetyl-DON-producers by biotransformation experiment of 3,15-DADON as a precursor. The geographic differences in the incidence of these producers in Japan were observed. Correlation between the incidence of the toxin producers and the occurrence of DON and NIV were investigated by field trials. For screening NIV alone or in combination with DON in cereals, specific monoclonal antibodies were produced, and practical ELISA kits were successfully developed. In relation to our previous findings, current advances in the molecular phylogenetic analysis of mycotoxigenic F. graminearum, the molecular genetics of trichothecene biosynthesis, among others, were briefly reviewed.

Low Rate of Clostridium Difficile Infection Testing in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Diarrhea

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has been reported in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in the community and during hospitalization, and may occur in IBD without exposure to antibiotics. The rate of CDI in patients with and without IBD has increased over the last decade. CDI is associated with various adverse outcomes in IBD, including disease relapse, colectomy (in ulcerative colitis), hospitalization and mortality. Thus, testing for CDI in patients with diarrhea and IBD is considered standard of care. There is a lack of data regarding the prevalence of CDI in newly diagnosed IBD, and its effect on disease course. As a basis for future studies to determine the impact of CDI on the course of IBD, we sought to determine rate of CDI and CDI testing at diagnosis of IBD. Rhode Island patients diagnosed with IBD after January 2008 and within one year of diagnosis were eligible to enroll in the Ocean State Crohn's and Colitis Area Registry (OSCCAR), a prospective cohort started January 2008. Medically trained personnel confirmed diagnosis of IBD by chart review using standard criteria. All patients completed a questionnaire regarding symptoms at diagnosis. This included self-report of diarrhea (loose or watery bowel movements and/or increased frequency of stool) within 4 weeks before diagnosis of IBD. Trained data abstractors recorded occurrence of CDI toxin or PCR assay testing and results from medical records of the gastroenterologist and/or surgeon who reported a new diagnosis, or inpatient records if diagnosed during hospitalization. Among 338 patients enrolled from January 2008 to June 2011, 260 (76.9%) reported diarrhea. Of the 260 patients, results of CDI testing were recorded in diagnosing physicians' records for 120 patients (46.2%). CDI testing was not recorded or possibly not performed for the remaining 140 patients who presented with diarrhea. An additional 21 patients were tested for CDI but did not report having diarrhea or did not have a symptom inventory on record. Of the 141 patients tested for CDI, 74 were female; 65 were diagnosed with ulcerative colitis, 65 with Crohn's disease, and 11 patients had IBD undetermined. Seven (4.9%) of the 141 patients tested were positive for CDI (2.1% of all patients). Testing for CDI is lower than expected at diagnosis of IBD especially among patients who presented with diarrhea. Although the prevalence of CDI among tested patients is only 5%, low rate of testing and possible delayed diagnosis of CDI in newly diagnosed IBD may be a significant quality issue. A limitation of the study is that we are unable to determine whether CDI testing was done prior to specialty referral and thus we may underestimate the rate of CDI testing.

First detection and seasonal variation of lipophilic toxins okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1, and yessotoxin in Korean gastropods.

Okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX1), pectenotoxin-2, and yessotoxin (YTX) are classes of lipophilic toxins found in marine animals. OA and DTX1 accumulation causes diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, a worldwide public health problem. Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning has not previously been reported in gastropods, which are widely consumed in Korea. Seasonal variation in marine lipophilic toxins in gastropods was investigated using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Eighty specimens of Neptunea cumingii, 65 specimens of Rapana venosa, and 95 specimens of Batillus cornutus were collected at the Tongyeong fish market on the southern coast of Korea between May 2009 and December 2010. OA, DTX1, and YTX were detected in meat and digestive glands in all gastropod species studied. Pectenotoxin-2 was not found in any sample tested. Lipophilic toxins were detected in the digestive glands of gastropods; no lipophilic toxin was detected in the salivary glands of the carnivorous gastropods, N. cumingii and R. venosa. The highest concentrations of OA (21.5 ng/g) and DTX1 (8.4 ng/g) were detected in the digestive glands of R. venosa, and the maximum concentration of YTX (13.7 ng/g) was found in the digestive glands of N. cumingii. The maximum toxicities in gastropod tissues were lower than the European standard for acceptable levels. The concentrations of lipophilic toxins in carnivorous gastropods showed a high degree of seasonal variation; lipophilic toxins in carnivorous gastropods were found predominantly in spring and summer. This is the first report of the occurrence of lipophilic toxins in Korean gastropods.

Low Rate of Clostridium difficile Infection Testing in Patients with Newly Diagnosed Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Diarrhea

Purpose:Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has been reported in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in the community and during hospitalization, and may occur in IBD without exposure to antibiotics. The rate of CDI in patients with and without IBD has increased over the last decade. CDI is associated with various adverse outcomes in IBD, including disease relapse, colectomy (in ulcerative colitis), hospitalization and mortality. Thus, testing for CDI in patients with diarrhea and IBD is considered standard of care. Little data exist regarding the prevalence of CDI in newly diagnosed IBD, and its effect on disease course. As a basis for future studies to determine the impact of CDI on the course of IBD, we sought to determine rate of CDI and CDI testing at diagnosis of IBD. Methods: Rhode Island patients diagnosed with IBD after January 2008 and within one year of diagnosis were eligible to enroll in the Ocean State Crohn's and Colitis Area Registry (OSCCAR), a prospective cohort started January 2008. Medically trained personnel confirmed diagnosis of IBD by chart review using standard criteria. All patients completed a questionnaire regarding symptoms at diagnosis. This included self-report of diarrhea (loose or watery bowel movements and/or increased frequency of stool) within 4 weeks before diagnosis of IBD. Trained data abstractors recorded occurrence of CDI toxin or PCR assay testing and results from medical records of the gastroenterologist and/or surgeon who reported a new diagnosis, or inpatient records if diagnosed during hospitalization. Results: Among 338 patients enrolled from January 2008 to June 2011, 260 (76.9%) reported diarrhea. Of the 260 patients, results of CDI testing were recorded in diagnosing physicians' records for 120 patients (46.2%). CDI testing was not recorded or possibly not performed for the remaining 140 patients who presented with diarrhea. An additional 21 patients were tested for CDI but did not report having diarrhea or did not have a symptom inventory on record. Of the 141 patients tested for CDI, 74 were female; 65 were diagnosed with ulcerative colitis, 65 with Crohn's disease, and 11 patients had IBD undetermined. Seven (4.9%) of the 141 patients tested were positive for CDI (2.1% of all patients). Conclusion: Testing for CDI is lower than expected at diagnosis of IBD especially among patients who presented with diarrhea. Although the prevalence of CDI among tested patients is only ˜5%, low rate of testing and possible delayed diagnosis of CDI in newly diagnosed IBD may be a significant quality issue. A limitation of the study is that we are unable to determine whether CDI testing was done prior to specialty referral and thus we may underestimate the rate of CDI testing.