Occurrence Of Lumpy Skin Disease Research Articles

Epidemiology and risk factors of lumpy skin disease outbreak in cattle in the north-west area of Bangladesh

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an acute viral disease of cattle that recently emerged in Bangladesh that negatively impacts livestock by reducing animal production, increasing management costs, and death of infected animals. Recently, Bangladesh has faced the ominous effects of LSD, like other countries. Because of this pressing concern, the present cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the infection status and risk factors of LSD outbreaks from January to December 2023 in Bangladesh’s northwest area. A total of 2858 cattle from various randomly selected farms were surveyed. The diagnosis was made on the basis of clinical inspection, clinical history, and owner complaints. The overall attack rate, mortality, and case fatality were 37.6%, 2.8%, and 7.5%, respectively, but in calves (≤1 month), the attack rate, mortality, and case fatality were 44.3%, 9.3%, and 21.3%, respectively. The infection status was discussed based on age, sex, breed, genotype, health status, immune status, coat color, farm size, farming system, separation of affected animals, separation place, use of common utensils, introduction of new cattle, use of vaccine and season of the year. Among them, age, sex, breed, health status, coat color, farm size, farming system, use of common utensils, and introduction of new cattle have no significant relationship with LSD outbreaks, but in calves (≤ 1 year), age has a significant association with the occurrence of LSD. The risk factor analysis revealed that the outbreaks of LSD were significantly (p<0.05) associated with genotypes, immune status, separation place, vaccination status of farm, and season of the year. The findings of the present study could provide useful epidemiological data on risk factors associated with LSD to livestock owners, field veterinarians, and government-level livestock regulators, which will help formulate prevention and control strategies and minimize the negative impact of LSD on cattle farming.

First evidence of lumpy skin disease in mithun (Bos frontalis) in India.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a disease of cattle that is also known to cause mild infection in buffaloes. To date, there have been no reports of LSD in mithun (Bos frontalis), a bovine species distributed in Northeast India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and parts of China. In the present study, the presence of typical clinical signs, virus isolation, PCR amplification, sequence analysis, and the demonstration of antibodies in serum by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and serum neutralization test, confirmed the occurrence of LSD in mithun for the first time in India. Phylogenetic analysis based on the full-length RPO30 and P32 genes of LSD virus from mithun and cattle revealed 100% sequence identity, indicating circulation of the same strain in both species in India and the possibility of spillover between species.

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) in Yak (Bos grunniens): An Evidence of Species Spillover from Cattle in India.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD), caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), is a global concern that affects cattle and buffalo. Recently, the disease has been reported in new species such as the Indian Gazelle, Camel, Banteng, Gaur, and Giraffe from various parts of the world. This report provides an insight into the occurrence of LSD in Yak from Sikkim, a North-Eastern state of India. During the investigation, both cattle and yak exhibited typical clinical signs of LSD, including skin nodular lesions. The morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates for cattle were 9.08%, 1.84%, and 20.24%, respectively. Similarly, the morbidity, mortality, and case fatality rates in yak were 7.57%, 1.24%, and 16.33%, respectively. The virus isolation and amplification of LSDV-specific genes confirmed the presence of LSDV in cattle, yak, and vectors. Further, demonstrated antibodies in randomly collected sera from naïve and unvaccinated cattle and yak using indirect Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (iELISA) and Serum Neutralisation test (SNT) from this region. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of P32, GPCR, and RPO30 genes revealed that the virus isolated from both species was 100% identical to each other and also closely related to the field LSDV isolates circulating in the Indian subcontinent. The study highlighted the emergence of LSDV in unconventional hosts and underscored the need to include other bovine species in national disease control programs, encompassing disease surveillance initiatives.

Testing and Histipathological Description of the Occurrence of Lumpy Skin Disease in Cattle in Kulon Progo, Special Region of Yogyakarta

Testing and Histipathological Description of the Occurrence of Lumpy Skin Disease in Cattle in Kulon Progo, Special Region of Yogyakarta

Risk factors, logistic model, and vulnerability mapping of lumpy skin disease in livestock at the farm level in Indragiri Hulu District, Riau Province, Indonesia, in 2022.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging epidemic in livestock in Indonesia. It was first reported in the Indragiri Hulu Regency of Riau Province, which has more cases than the surrounding regencies. This study aimed to identify the risk factors and generate a logistic regression model and vulnerability map of LSD in the Indragiri Hulu Regency. We used a structured questionnaire to interview the case and control farm owners to evaluate the risk factors. We evaluated 244 samples, consisting of 122 case and control farm samples each. At the cattle farm level, the risk factor data related to LSD were analyzed using descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis with Chi-square, and odds ratio, while the logistic model was derived using multivariate logistic regression analysis. Using variables, such as the number of cases and risk factor variables included in the model logistic, and the temperature, humidity, and rainfall data from the Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency, we analyzed the vulnerability map of LSD in the regency using scoring, weighting, and overlay methods. Ten significant risk factors were associated with LSD occurrence. The LSD model obtained from the logistic regression analysis was LSD (Y) = -3.92095 + 1.13107 (number of cattle >3) + 1.50070 (grazing cattle together with other farmers' cattle) + 1.03500 (poor management of farm waste/dirt) + 2.49242 (presence of livestock collectors/traders near the farm location) + 1.40543 (introduction of new livestock) + 2.15196 (lack of vector control measures on the farm). The LSD vulnerability map indicated that the villages with high vulnerability levels were Rantau Bakung, Kuantan Babu, and Sungai Lala in the Rengat Barat, Rengat, and Sungai Lala subdistricts, respectively. We found 10 significant risk factors associated with LSD occurrence. The LSD model included the number of cattle (>3), cograzing with other farmers' cattle, poor management of farm waste/dirt, the presence of livestock collectors/traders near the farm, introduction of new livestock, and lack of vector control measures on the farm. The LSD vulnerability map indicated that villages with high vulnerability levels included Rantau Bakung in the Rengat Barat subdistrict, Kuantan Babu in the Rengat subdistrict, and Sungai Lala in the Sungai Lala subdistrict.

Global Risk Assessment of the Occurrence of Bovine Lumpy Skin Disease: Based on an Ecological Niche Model

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a highly contagious disease in bovine animals. An outbreak of LSD can cause devastating economic losses to the cattle industry. To investigate the distribution characteristics of historical LSD epidemics, LSD was divided into four phases for directional distribution analysis based on trends in epidemic prevalence. Ecological niche models were developed for LSD as well as for two vectors (Stomoxys calcitrans and Aedes aegypti), and global predictive maps were generated for the probability of LSD occurrence and the potential distribution of the two LSD vectors. The models had good predictive performance (the AUC values were 0.894 for the LSD model, 0.911 for the S. calcitrans model, and 0.950 for the A. aegypti model). The LSD combined vector prediction map was generated by combining the distribution maps of Stomoxys calcitrans and Aedes aegyptiwith fuzzy overlay tool in ArcGIS. The LSD combined vector prediction map was combined with the LSD prediction map to generate the LSD vector transmission risk map. The eastern and northwestern regions of North America, the eastern and northern regions of South America, the central and southern regions of Africa, the southern region of Europe, the northwestern and southeastern regions of Asia, and the eastern region of Australia were predicted to provide suitable environmental conditions for the occurrence of LSD. Cattle density, buffalo density, and bio2 (mean diurnal range) were identified as key variables for the occurrence of LSD. The findings of this study can be useful to policymakers in developing and implementing preventive measures of LSD for the health of cattle and the cattle industry.

Demographic factors influencing Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD) prevalence at Barishal district in Bangladesh: A retrospective study

Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD), a contagious viral disease, had been a matter of great concern for Bangladesh as the outbreak of LSD occurred in the mid of 2019. Later the disease began to show symptoms like significant production loss, infertility, aberrant pregnancies and abortions, and even fatalities. So, a retrospective study was carried out to investigate the prevalence rate and associated risk factors of LSD in cattle at Barishal district, Bangladesh. The study was performed at Upazilla Veterinary Hospital, Babuganj, Barishal from January 2021 to June 2022. Among 2047 clinical cases reported at the hospitals, 44 cases were found as LSD positive. The prevalence rate of LSD in the aforementioned territory was 2.15%. The highest prevalence was estimated in June 2022 (13.39%) followed by May 2022 (7.32%), August 2021(4.35%), February 2021(4.00%), April 2022 (2.23%), March 2021 (1.69%), February 2022 (1.53%), March 2022(0.76%), September 2021 (0.75%). In the contrast, no LSD case was detected in Jan 2021, May 2021, Jun 2021, Oct 2021, Nov 2021, Dec 2021, and Jan 2022. Breed [χ2 (1, N=2047) =4.989, p<.05] and sex [χ2 (1, N=2047) =4.695, p<.05] of the animals were identified as significant demographic factors for LSDV infections in this locality. Additionally, indigenous breeds [(2.63%), 95%CI: 2.454 (1.088-5.534)], females [(2.76%), 95%CI: 0.484 (0.248-0.946)] and older cattle (>5 years) (3.48%) had a greater prevalence rate than the crossbreeds, males and younger cattle respectively. As LSD has recently become more prevalent, restriction of animal movements, control of vectors, proper vaccination and treatments, routine-wise animal screening, immediate isolation and quarantine of the affected animals are some of the strategies that are strongly recommended and might be followed for reducing the LSD occurrence and spreading in this area.

Epidemiology and economic impact of lumpy skin disease of cattle in Mymensingh and Gaibandha districts of Bangladesh.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an emerging viral disease of cattle that negatively impacts livestock by reducing animals' production and increasing management costs. Like other countries, Bangladesh has also faced the ominous effects of LSD. Because of this pressing concern, the present study was undertaken to determine the attack rate and risk factors along with economic losses of the recent LSD outbreaks from October 2019 to June 2020 in Bangladesh's Mymensingh and Gaibandha districts. A total of 1187 cattle from 150 randomly selected cattle farms were surveyed. The diagnosis was made both clinically and molecularly. The overall attack rate, mortality and case fatality were 34%, 1.10% and 3.23%, respectively, but in calves up to 1 month of age, the attack rate, mortality and case-fatality were 41.6%, 12.5% and 30%, respectively. In risk factor analysis using multiple logistic regression, the following factors were significantly (p < .05) associated with LSD occurrence: no administration of goat pox vaccine, frequency of goat pox vaccination - single dose, introduction of new cattle, land type (low land and medium-high land), use of common syringe and needle, and use of common utensils. The average economic loss per case was 9384.41 BDT (110.40 US $). The higher economic loss per case was accounted in Mymensingh district (10248.91 BDT ≈ 120.58 US $) than Gaibandha district (8211.52 BDT ≈ 96.61 US $). The loss was higher in crossbred cattle (9709.58 BDT ≈ 114.23 US $) compared to indigenous cattle (7595.94 BDT ≈ 89.36 US $). The total estimated annual loss due to LSD in Mymensingh and Gaibandha districts was 7763.25 million BDT (91.33 million US $). In Gaibandha district, the estimated annual loss was 2666.20 million BDT (31.37 million US $) while in Mymensingh district it was 5097.05 million BDT (59.97 million US $). Findings of the study could provide useful epidemiological data with losses incurred due to LSD to the livestock owners, field veterinarians and government-level livestock regulators, which will help to formulate prevention and control strategies and minimize the negative impact of LSD's probable return or spread.

Seroprevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Lumpy Skin Disease of Cattle in Selected Districts of Afar Region, Ethiopia.

BackgroundLumpy skin disease (LSD) is one of Ethiopia’s most economically significant transboundary livestock illnesses. The disease has a significant economic impact on pastoral household livestock owners, who rely significantly on their cattle as a source of income.MethodsA cross-sectional study was undertaken in selected districts of Afar region from November 2018 to May 2019 primarily intended to estimate the prevalence of lumpy skin disease serologically in local Afar cattle as well as identify potential associated factors. A multistage sampling method was employed to select study districts, peasant association, herd size and study units. A total of 384 sera were processed using serum neutralization test (SNT) method to detect antibodies against lumpy skin disease virus. Relevant data were refined and further analyzed using stata version 14.ResultsIn the study districts, the overall animal level seroprevalence was found to be 7.6% (N = 29/384; 95% confidence interval: 4.90–10.20) and the overall herd level prevalence was found to be 20.8% (n = 15/72; 95% confidence interval: 11.42–30.18). Only district was shown to be statistically significant (P = 0.004) in terms of LSD occurrence among the relevant factors studied. Cattle in Chifra district were 20.18 times more likely to contract LSD infection than cattle in Dubti district, when Asayita district was used as the reference group.ConclusionThe present study finding confirmed the presence of the disease in the study districts of afar region and coordinated intervention set to be in place.

First detection and phylogenetic analysis of lumpy skin disease virus from Kinmen Island, Taiwan in 2020.

Lumpy skin disease is an arthropod-borne bovine disease caused by lumpy skin disease virus. A suspect lumpy skin disease case in a breeding cattle farm on Kinmen Island, Taiwan was reported on July 8, 2020 and later confirmed the first occurrence of lumpy skin disease in the country by molecular biological detections, electron microscopy, and sequence comparison. Implementation of control measures including blanket vaccination on the island effectively ceased the outbreaks. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the virus discovered in the outbreaks was most similar to those identified in China in 2019. Identifying this virus in the coastal areas in East Asia indicated the rapid eastward spread of lumpy skin disease in Asia.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) outbreaks in cattle in Odisha state, India in August 2019: Epidemiological features and molecular studies.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) inflicts significant economic losses in cattle production with impact on livelihoods of smallholders. This study reports the first occurrence of LSD in cattle in India and analyses epidemiological and genetic characterization data from LSD outbreaks in five districts of Odisha state in August 2019. In all, 182 of 2,539 cattle were affected with an apparent morbidity rate of 7.1% and no mortality. Out of 102 samples from 60 LSD suspected and 17 asymptomatic in-contact cattle tested, 29.87% cattle were positive by capripoxvirus generic PCR and 37.66% were positive by LSDV real-time PCR. All the in-contact cattle tested were negative for LSDV. Among affected cattle, LSDV genome was detected more in scabs (79.16%) than blood (31.81%) and frozen bull semen (20.45%). Differential diagnosis by PCR was negative for pseudo-LSD, buffalopox, cowpox, pseudo-cowpox and bovine papular stomatitis. Five selected PCR and real-time PCR-positive LSDV DNA were sequenced in three genomic regions, P32 (LSDV074), F (LSDV117) and RPO30 (LSDV036). Phylogenetic analysis based on partial P32 and F gene sequences and complete RPO30 gene sequences showed that all the five Indian LSDV strains were identical and clustered with other field strains of LSDV circulating globally. However, the F and RPO30 gene sequence analyses revealed that Indian LSDV strains are genetically closer to the South African NI2490/KSGP-like strains than the strains detected in Europe, which was rather surprising. The present study established the existence of LSDV in India and involvement of LSDV field strains in the outbreaks. Additionally, we provided evidence of LSDV shedding in semen of naturally infected bulls. Further studies are required to determine the source of LSD introduction, extent of spread, modes of transmission and impact on dairy cattle production in India and effective control measures must be undertaken urgently.

Analyzing risk factors for lumpy skin disease by a geographic information system (GIS) in Turkey

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is caused by the virus of the same name and has major economic impacts on cattle breeding. In Turkey, frequent cases of cattle LSD have been reported over the last years. The present study aimed to analyze potential risk factors for LSD and provide information for controlling the spread of infectious diseases by a geographic information system (GIS). The research included cross-sectional and retrospective studies with active disease follow-up and semi-structured interviews (SSI) from August 2013 to December 2014 in Turkey. Potential risk factors for LSD were evaluated based on environmental conditions and provincial demographic and epidemiological data. Of the total of 562 observed animals, 27.22% and 2.67% of cattle were sick and died due to LSD, respectively. The morbidity rate was 26.04% in mixed and 38.18% in local breeds. The animal-level prevalence significantly differed among animals of different age, sex, and with different vaccination status (P&lt;0.05). It was more serious in younger animals and females and during drier weather conditions. A trend of seasonality was observed in LSD occurrence. Significant risk factors affecting the prevalence of LSD were proximity to the southern border of Turkey, animal movements, and animal markets. In this process, geographical query, analysis, and thematic map production were performed by GIS.

Epizootic features and control measures for lumpy skin disease in south-east Serbia in 2016.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an infectious disease of cattle caused by virus of the Capripoxvirus genus (LSDV), family Poxviridae. Until 2015, it had not appeared in the Balkans. In June 2016, LSD spread throughout Serbia. This study analyses the first LSD occurrence, epizootic features, applied diagnostic procedures and control measures in five districts in south-east Serbia (Pcinja, Jablanica, Pirot, Toplica and Nisava). In total, there were 225 LSD outbreaks reported in Serbia, out of which 189 (84%) were located in the study area. The highest number of outbreaks was registered in Pcinja district (169), where LSD was first registered. The median distance and time between the nearest previous outbreak sites were calculated (4.32km and 9days). The median altitude of outbreak locations was 992m with more than 90% above 500m (p≤0.001). The average herd morbidity rate in the study area was 13.6% and the herd mortality rate was recorded only in Pcinja (0.5%) and Jablanica (1.6%) districts. Samples taken from the cattle suspected to LSD were subjected to real time PCR analysis. Out of 233 samples tested for LSDV 132 (56.7%) were positive. The LSDV genome was identified in skin nodules (85.4%), blood (72.7%) and nasal swabs (62.5%). Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the LSDV strain circulating in Serbia fell within the cluster of field LSDV found worldwide. In response to the LSD epizootic, animal trade and movement were prohibited, complete stamping out, disinfection, disinsection and an entire bovine population vaccination using the homologous Neethling live attenuated vaccine (OBP, South Africa) were conducted. A month and a half after the completion of the vaccination campaign, the LSD epizootic was stopped, and no new cases have been reported since.

Detection of antibodies against Lumpy skin disease virus by Virus neutralization test and ELISA methods

Abstract Infection of cattle with lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) is very important from the aspect of livestock production. Although it can cause significant economic losses, available serological assays are still not sufficiently efficient and reliable. A 3-day VNT was performed using Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cell line and LSDV isolated from clinically infected cow to improve serological diagnostics of lumpy skin disease (LSD). In total, 325 cattle sera samples were tested in order to compare the performances of VNT and ELISA. Tested samples originated from 125 cows before the occurrence of LSD in the Republic of Serbia and 200 tested samples originated from vaccinated cows. Sera samples from vaccinated cows were collected starting from the vaccination day to 4 months after vaccination. In 7 different time intervals after vaccination sampling was carried out in 20 cows originating from one herd and in 3 different time intervals in 20 cows originating from a different herd each time of sampling. Out of 200 samples from vaccinated cows, antibodies against LSDV were detected in 68 (34%) samples by VNT, and in 60 (30%) samples by ELISA. No positive finding was detected by VNT in samples collected before the occurrence of LSD in Serbia, while one positive finding was detected in the same samples by ELISA. The first presence of antibodies in vaccinated cattle was detected by both tests 20 days after vaccination, and the largest number of animals with antibodies against LSDV was detected 30 days after vaccination. Comparing the results obtained by VNT and ELISA, it was calculated that kappa index was 0.913. The specificity of VNT and ELISA was 100% and 99.2%, respectively. VNT is simpler to perform compared to the recommended virus neutralization test by the OIE and can improve LSD serological diagnostics with additional sensitivity testing.

Survey on Distribution, Associated factors of Lumpy Skin Disease Occurrence and Its Vaccine Efficacy in selected Districts of East Wollega Zone, Western Oromiya

Survey on Distribution, Associated factors of Lumpy Skin Disease Occurrence and Its Vaccine Efficacy in selected Districts of East Wollega Zone, Western Oromiya

Field study on the use of vaccination to control the occurrence of lumpy skin disease in Ethiopian cattle

The current study was carried out in central and North-western parts of Ethiopia to assess the efficacy of Kenyan sheep pox virus strain vaccine (KS1 O-180) against natural lumpy skin disease (LSD) infection under field conditions by estimating its effect on the transmission and severity of the disease. For this study, an LSD outbreak was defined as the occurrence of at least one LSD case in a specified geographical area. An observational study was conducted on a total of 2053 (1304 vaccinated and 749 unvaccinated) cattle in 339 infected herds located in 10 sub-kebeles and a questionnaire survey was administered to 224 herd owners. Over 60% of the herd owners reported that the vaccine has a low to very low effect in protecting animals against clinical LSD; almost all of them indicated that the vaccine did not induce any adverse reactions. In the unvaccinated group of animals 31.1% were diagnosed with LSD while this was 22.5% in the vaccinated group (P<0.001). Severity of the disease was significantly reduced in vaccinated compared to unvaccinated animals (OR=0.68, 95% CI: 0.49; 0.96). Unvaccinated infected animals were more likely (predicted fraction=0.89) to develop moderate and severe disease than vaccinated infected animals (predicted fraction=0.84).LSD vaccine efficacy for susceptibility was estimated to be 0.46 (i.e. a susceptibility effect of 0.54) while the infectiousness effect of the vaccine was 1.83. In other words, the vaccine reduces the susceptibility by a factor of two and increases infectiousness by approximately the same amount. LSD transmission occurred in both vaccinated and unvaccinated animals, the estimated reproduction ratio (R) was 1.21 in unvaccinated animals compared to 1.19 in vaccinated ones, and not significantly different. In conclusion, KS1 O-180 vaccination, as applied currently in Ethiopia, has poor efficacy in protecting cattle populations against LSD, neither by direct clinical protection nor by reducing transmission, and this signifies the urgent need to either improve the quality of the vaccine or to develop potent alternative vaccines that will confer good protection against LSD.

Lumpy skin disease in cattle: Frequency of occurrence in a dairy farm and a preliminary assessment of its possible impact on Egyptian buffaloes.

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is an endemic infectious disease of cattle in Egypt. This survey aimed to define the prevalence of clinical and sub-clinical LSD virus (LSDV) infection among cattle and investigate their contact with water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) in order to improve the understanding of LSD epidemiology. Cattle and buffalo were examined owing to the appearance of skin lesions. Because clinical signs were consistent with LSDV infection, samples from cattle in a non-grazing dairy farm (n = 450) were submitted for LSDV testing together with those from the in-contact buffaloes (n = 100). Results revealed that the intra-herd percentage of cattle infected with LSDV varied with the detection method. This ranged from 22.4% to 65.4% by virus isolation (VI) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR), respectively, in clinical cattle samples, compared to 0% and 10% by VI and PCR in non-clinical cases. Using the neutralising index (NI), LSDV antibodies were found in 100% (n = 100) of the tested cow’s sera (NI = > 2.0 and ≥ 3.0), whereas buffalo’s sera (n = 34) displayed little increase in antibody level (NI ≥ 1.5). None of the buffalo were positive for LSDV by VI and PCR. In addition, there were no significant differences in LSD prevalence among the cattle with regard to age and sex. In conclusion, the occurrence of LSD in cattle warrants a further epidemiological study of the spread of the disease in the area and adoption of control and prevention strategies. In addition, the PCR assay was confirmed to be useful in the diagnosis of LSDV and for wider epidemiological studies.

Epidemiological Study of Lumpy Skin Disease Outbreaks in North-western Iran

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a highly contagious transboundary disease of cattle with major economic losses. This study was undertaken to address the emergence and epidemiological features of LSD in four north-western provinces of Iran. These provinces have extensive borders with others country including Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Armenia. A population of 683 cattle from 91 farms were examined during LSD outbreak in Iran during 2014-2016. The information of the farms including the population size, gender, age, vaccination status, clinical signs and the number of death because of LSD were recorded in the designed questionnaires. A number of 234 blood samples were collected randomly from animals with and without clinical signs of LSD. DNA was extracted from blood samples, and they were used for amplifying a fragment of 434bp in size coupled with restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) for molecular detection of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). The estimated prevalence, cumulative mortality and case fatality were 17.9%, 3.5% and 19.7%, respectively. There was no significant difference in occurrence of the disease between male and female cattle. LSD occurrence in age groups above 5years old and below 6months old showed highest and lowest relative frequencies, respectively. Vaccination was significantly decreased the occurrence of clinical disease. The developed PCR-RFLP technique was able to differentiate between LSDV, sheep pox virus (ShPV) and goat pox virus (GPV). It was concluded that LSD was entered into Iran probably from Iraq via uncontrolled animal movements along common land borders between two countries. Developed PCR-RFLP could be used as a rapid and inexpensive method for differentiating Capripoxviruses (CaPVs).

Estimated prevalence and risk factors associated with clinical Lumpy skin disease in north-eastern Ethiopia

Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is one of the major livestock disease problems in most areas of Ethiopia. A questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2011 to February 2012 in four selected districts of Afar and Tigray regions to estimate the herd-level prevalence of LSD, and to assess its associated risk factors. Herd-owners were selected based on the willingness to provide information to complete the questionnaire. A total of 393 questionnaires were collected. Out of 393 herd-owners, 173 reported having LSD in their herds, giving an estimated herd- and animal-level prevalence of (44%, 95% CI: 37–50%) and (7.4%, 95% CI: 6–8%), respectively. Herd prevalence between regions and among the districts were significantly different (χ2=8, P<0.01 and χ2=9.9, P<0.01), respectively. The risk factors of LSD occurrence were introduction of a new animal to the herd, herd size, and utilization of communal grazing and watering points. These management characteristics cannot be readily changed in the studied area, hence, disease control should rely on a greater use of effective LSD vaccines.

Some observations on the occurrence of lumpy skin disease in Nigeria.

Summary Lumpy skin disease outbreaks occurred in Nigeria in 1974. In 1979-80 more severe and widespread outbreaks were recorded, involving a larger number of animals and causing abortions. Bacterial and protozoan complications were also features of the present outbreaks. The disease was diagnosed on clinical observations, histopathology, virus isolation and identification and electron microscopy. The authors point out the need to develop an attenuated cell culture vaccine to control the disease since present methods of quarantine and slaughter have been found to be inadequate. Zusammenfassung Beobachtungen uber das Auftreten von Lumpy Skin Disease in Nigeria 1974 traten in Nigeria Ausbruche von Lumpy Skin Disease auf. 1979/80 wurde uber weiter verbreitete Ausbruche mit schwererem Verlauf und Aborten bei einer groseren Tierzahl berichtet. Sie wurden von bakteriellen und Protozoen-Komplikationen begleitet. Die Krankheit wurde durch klinische und histopathologische Befunde, Virusisolierung und -identifizierung sowie Elektronenmikroskopie diagnostiert. Die Autoren betonen die Dringlichkeit, einen attenuierten Lebendimpf-stoff zu entwickeln, da sich die gegenwartig angewandten Bekampfungsmetho-den von Quarantane und Abschlachtung als unzulanglich erwiesen haben. Resume Observations sur l'apparition de «Lumpy Skin Disease» au Nigeria Des apparitions de Lumpy Skin Disease sont intervenues en 1974 au Nigeria. Des apparitions plus etendues en 1979/80 sont decrites chez un plus grand nombre d'animaux avec une evolution plus grave et des avortements. Elles sont accompagnees de complications bacteriennes et avec des protozoaires. La maladie fut diagnostiquee par des resultats cliniques et histopathologiques, un isolement et une identification du virus et par la microscopie electronique. Les auteurs mettent l'accent sur l'urgence du developpement d'un vaccin vivant attenue etant donne que les methodes de lutte actuellement utilises telles que la quarantaine et l'abattage se sont revelees etre insuffisantes. Resumen Observaciones sobre la invasion de la enfermedad de piel nodulosa en Nigeria En 1974 se registraron en Nigeria brotes de la enfermedad de piel nodulosa. En 1979/80 se informo sobre nuevos brotes de difusion mayor con curso grave y abortos en una cantidad considerable de animales. Estuvieron acompanados por complicaciones bacterianas y protozoarias. La enfermedad fue diagnosticada mediante hallazgos clinicos e histopatologicos, aislamiento del virus e identificacion del mismo asi como microscopia electronica. Los autores hacen hincapie en la perentoriedad de desarrollar una vacuna viva atenuada, ya que los metodos de policia sanitaria empleados hasta la fecha, tales como cuarentena y sacrificio, resultaron ser inadecuados.