Occurrence Of Deoxynivalenol Research Articles

Maize–Fusarium associations and their mycotoxins: Insights from South Africa

For maize, a staple food in South Africa, there is a lack of comprehensive knowledge on the mycotoxin-producing fungal diversity. In this study, a fungal community profile was established using culture-dependent methods for 56 maize seed samples that were also analysed for 13 mycotoxins. The fungal isolates were identified by morphology and DNA sequencing. A total of 723 fungal isolates from 21 genera and 99 species were obtained and characterised. Fusarium was the most common genus (isolated from 52 samples), followed by Cladosporium (n = 45), Aspergillus (n = 41), Talaromyces (n = 40), and Penicillium (n = 38). Fusarium communities were dominated by the Fusarium fujikuroi species complex, which includes species such as Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium temperatum, while Fusarium awaxy and Fusarium mirum are reported here for the first time from South Africa. As for the deoxynivalenol (DON) producing species, only Fusarium boothii and Fusarium graminearum were isolated to a lesser extent. DON (n = 37), fumonisins (FUM) (n = 32), and zearalenone (ZEA) (n = 6) were detected. The presence of a particular species did not guarantee the presence of the corresponding mycotoxins, while the inverse was also true. The occurrence of DON and/or FUM in South African maize remains a health concern, so continuous monitoring of both fungal species and their mycotoxins is important.

Evaluation of Statistical Treatment of Left-Censored Contamination Data: Example Involving Deoxynivalenol Occurrence in Pasta and Pasta Substitute Products.

The handling of data on food contamination frequently represents a challenge because these are often left-censored, being composed of both positive and non-detected values. The latter observations are not quantified and provide only the information that they are below a laboratory-specific threshold value. Besides deterministic approaches, which simplify the treatment through the substitution of non-detected values with fixed threshold or null values, a growing interest has been shown in the application of stochastic approaches to the treatment of unquantified values. In this study, a multiple imputation procedure was applied in order to analyze contamination data on deoxynivalenol, a mycotoxin that may be present in pasta and pasta substitute products. An application of the proposed technique to censored deoxynivalenol occurrence data is presented. The results were compared to those attained using deterministic techniques (substitution methods). In this context, the stochastic approach seemed to provide a more accurate, unbiased and realistic solution to the problem of left-censored occurrence data. The complete sample of values could then be used to estimate the exposure of the general population to deoxynivalenol based on consumption data.

Global distribution, toxicity to humans and animals, biodegradation, and nutritional mitigation of deoxynivalenol: A review.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the main types of B trichothecenes, and it causes health-related issues in humans and animals and imposes considerable challenges to food and feed safety globally each year. This review investigates the global hazards of DON, describes the occurrence of DON in food and feed in different countries, and systematically uncovers the mechanisms of the various toxic effects of DON. For DON pollution, many treatments have been reported on the degradation of DON, and each of the treatments has different degradation efficacies and degrades DON by a distinct mechanism. These treatments include physical, chemical, and biological methods and mitigation strategies. Biodegradation methods include microorganisms, enzymes, and biological antifungal agents, which are of great research significance in food processing because of their high efficiency, low environmental hazards, and drug resistance. And we also reviewed the mechanisms of biodegradation methods of DON, the adsorption and antagonism effects of microorganisms, and the different chemical transformation mechanisms of enzymes. Moreover, nutritional mitigation including common nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and microelements) and plant extracts was discussed in this review, and the mitigation mechanism of DON toxicity was elaborated from the biochemical point of view. These findings help explore various approaches to achieve the best efficiency and applicability, overcome DON pollution worldwide, ensure the sustainability and safety of food processing, and explore potential therapeutic options with the ability to reduce the deleterious effects of DON in humans and animals.

Protocooperative Effect of Sphaerodes mycoparasitica Biocontrol and Crop Genotypes on FHB Mycotoxin Reduction in Bread and Durum Wheat Grains Intended for Human and Animal Consumption

The occurrence of Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) mycotoxins in wheat grains is a major threat to global food safety and security. Humans and animals are continuously being exposed to Fusarium mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and its acetylated derivatives 3ADON and 15ADON through the ingestion of contaminated food or grain-based diet. In this study, a host-specific mycoparasite biocontrol agent (BCA), Sphaerodes mycoparasitica, significantly reduced FHB mycotoxin occurrence in harvested wheat grains from Fusarium graminearum 3ADON chemotype infected plants in greenhouse. Four genotypes of wheat, two common wheat and two durum wheat cultivars with varying FHB resistance levels were used in this study. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) using Illumina ITS sequences depicted beta diversity changes in Fusarium species indicating that both plant cultivar and BCA treatments influenced the Fusarium species structure and mycotoxin occurrence in grains. Fusarium graminearum complex (cluster A), F. avenaceum and F. acuminatum (cluster B), and F. proliferatum (cluster C) variants were associated with different FHB mycotoxins based on LC-MS/MS analyses. The predominant FHB mycotoxins measured were DON and its acetylated derivatives 3ADON and 15ADON. The BCA reduced the occurrence of DON in grains of all four cultivars (common wheat: 1000-30,000 µg·kg-1.; durum wheat: 600-1000 µg·kg-1) to levels below the Limit of Quantification (LOQ) of 16 µg·kg-1. A relatively higher concentration of DON was detected in the two common wheat genotypes when compared to the durum wheat genotype; however, the percentage reduction in the wheat genotypes was greater, reaching up to 99% with some S. mycoparasitica treatments. Similarly, a higher reduction in DON was measured in susceptible genotypes than in resistant genotypes. This study's findings underscore the potential of a Fusarium-specific S. mycoparasitica BCA as a safe and promising alternative that can be used in conjunction with other management practices to minimize FHB mycotoxins in cereal grain, food and feed intended for human and animal consumption.

Probabilistic Risk Assessment of Combined Exposure to Deoxynivalenol and Emerging Alternaria Toxins in Cereal-Based Food Products for Infants and Young Children in China.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and emerging Alternaria toxins often co-occur in cereal-based products, but the current risk assessment is commonly conducted for only one type of mycotoxin at a time. Compared to adults, infants and young children are more susceptible to mycotoxins through food consumption, especially with cereal-based food products which are the main source of exposure. This study aimed to perform a probabilistic risk assessment of combined exposure to DON and three major Alternaria toxins, namely including alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), alternariol (AOH), and tenuazonic acid (TeA) through consumption of cereal-based foods for Chinese infants and young children. A total of 872 cereal-based food products were randomly collected and tested for the occurrence of DON and three major Alternaria toxins. The results on mycotoxin occurrence showed the DON, TeA, AOH, and AME was detected in 56.4%, 47.5%, 7.5%, and 5.7% of the samples, respectively. Co-contamination of various mycotoxins was observed in 39.9% of the analyzed samples. A preliminary cumulative risk assessment using the models of hazard index (HI) and combined margin of exposure (MoET) was performed on DON and Alternaria toxins that were present in cereal-based food products for infants and young children in China for the first time. The results showed that only 0.2% and 1.5%, respectively, of individuals exceeded the corresponding reference value for DON and TeA, indicating a low health risk. However, in the case of AME and AOH, the proportion of individuals exceeding the reference value was 24.1% and 33.5%, respectively, indicating the potential health risks. In the cumulative risk assessment of AME and AOH, both HI and MoET values indicated a more serious risk than that related to individual exposure. Further research is necessary to reduce the uncertainties that are associated with the toxicities of the Alternaria toxins and cumulative risk assessment methods.

Natural occurrence of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in cereal-derived products from Egypt

The occurrence of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in 104 corn and wheat flour samples available on the Egyptian market was investigated using ultra-performance liquid chromatography with a photodiode array detector (UPLC-PDA). Of all samples, 70.2% were contaminated with deoxynivalenol at levels varying between < LOQ and 853 μg/kg. Nivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside were detected in only 54.8% (range < LOQ–462 μg/kg) and 32.7% (range < LOQ–257 μg/kg) of the samples, respectively. The occurrence of the target mycotoxins was more frequent in corn flour samples, compared to wheat flour ones (p < 0.05). A total of 46.6% (34/73) of all deoxynivalenol-positive samples contained glucoside conjugate form (deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside) at contamination levels that reached 8.0–33.3% of the parent deoxynivalenol. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside in cereal-derived products from Egypt. Dietary risk assessment was also conducted by evaluating the probable daily intakes, which were within the tolerable daily intakes proposed by the Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) of the European Union for legislated mycotoxins (0.7 and 1.0 μg/kg body weight/day for NIV and DON, respectively). However, from the food safety's point of view, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins across a high number of the analyzed samples (64/104) would increase the toxicological hazard due to synergistic effects of possible combined exposure. Still, the need for continuous surveillance of these mycotoxins throughout the cereal production chain is important to control and minimize their potential health hazards, particularly those attributed to DON intake by the consumers.

Reduction of the Fusarium Mycotoxins: Deoxynivalenol, Nivalenol and Zearalenone by Selected Non-Conventional Yeast Strains in Wheat Grains and Bread.

Mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi, are important contaminants in food and agricultural industries around the world. These toxins have a multidirectional toxic effect on living organisms, causing damage to the kidneys and liver, and disrupting the functions of the digestive tract and the immune system. In recent years, much attention has been paid to the biological control of pathogens and the mycotoxins they produce. In this study, selected yeasts were used to reduce the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and zearalenone (ZEA) produced by Fusarium culmorum, F. graminearum, and F. poae on wheat grain and bread. In a laboratory experiment, an effective reduction in the content of DON, NIV, and ZEA was observed in bread prepared by baking with the addition of an inoculum of the test yeast, ranging from 16.4% to 33.4%, 18.5% to 36.2% and 14.3% to 35.4%, respectively. These results indicate that the selected yeast isolates can be used in practice as efficient mycotoxin decontamination agents in the food industry.

Natural Occurrence of Deoxynivalenol in Cereal-Based Baby Foods for Infants from Western Poland.

The study examined 110 samples of baby products based on rice, wheat, maize and multi-grains available on the western Polish market in order to detect the level of deoxynivalenol (DON) by means of HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). DON was detected in 9.09% of the infant food samples, with an average and maximum level of 107.8 ± 30 and 148 μg/kg, respectively. The highest concentration of DON was detected in food for infants: wheat-based (mean 121 ± 7.07, 4.8%), multi-grain (mean 118 ± 5.65, 4.25%) and maize-based (mean 100 ± 37.96; 35.30%). No high DON content and high estimated daily intake were observed in the analyzed products. However, in order to minimize the harmfulness associated with the presence of DON in food for infants and young children, a risk assessment should be performed based on the monitoring results.

DEOXINIVALENOL AS A RISK FACTOR OF FOOD GRAIN CONTAMINATION: MONITORING RESULTS OF 1989–2018 YEARS HARVESTS IN RUSSIAN FEDERATION

The paper dwells on the results obtained via long-term monitoring over food grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats, and rye) contamination with mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). From 1989 to 2018 6,800 grain samples from Central, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, North-Caucasian, Far Eastern, and North-western Federal Districts (FD) of the RF were analyzed. Depending on a year harvest, DON occurrence varied from 0 to 42 % and maximum toxin content reached 6.65 mg/kg. Over the whole examined period 10 % samples turned out to be contaminated and one forth of them contained the toxin in quanti- ties exceeding maximum permissible levels (MPL). DON occurrence amounted to 24–42 % in years of mass epiphytoties (1989, 1992 and 1993) as well as in crops gathered in 2014 and 2017; DON was detected in quantities exceeding MPL in 9–27 % of examined samples in those years. 78 % contaminated samples came from Southern and North-Caucasian FD and another 10 % were from Far Eastern FD. A significant correlation between DON occurrence and a number of rainy and sunny days in May was established on the example of wheat samples from Krasnodar region. Analysis of contamination dy- namics has revealed that over the last years there has been an ascending trend in frequency of DON detection in wheat that came not only from regions where Fusarium head blight was widely spread but also from regions in North-western, Siberian and Volga FD. Health risks related to DON intake with wheat grains processing products were assessed; the assessment revealed that DON intake higher than tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the residents of Southern and North-Caucasian FD in 1992, 1993, 2014 and 2017. Average occurrence of DON was 4.2; 11.9; 3.0 and 0.6 % for barley, corn, rye, and oats samples and its maximum contents amounted to 8.95; 0.95; 0.96 and 0.44 mg/kg accordingly. Just as it was the case with wheat, the most of contami- nated samples came from Southern, North-Caucasian and Far Eastern FD. Contamination tended to grow for all the exam- ined grains and it calls for relevant measures aimed at controlling food grains safety

ДЕЗОКСИНИВАЛЕНОЛ КАК ФАКТОР РИСКА ЗАГРЯЗНЕНИЯ ПРОДОВОЛЬСТВЕННОГО ЗЕРНА: МОНИТОРИНГ УРОЖАЕВ 1989–2018 ГГ. В РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

The paper dwells on the results obtained via long-term monitoring over food grain (wheat, barley, corn, oats, and rye) contamination with mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). From 1989 to 2018 6,800 grain samples from Central, Southern, Volga, Ural, Siberian, North-Caucasian, Far Eastern, and North-western Federal Districts (FD) of the RF were analyzed. Depending on a year harvest, DON occurrence varied from 0 to 42 % and maximum toxin content reached 6.65 mg/kg. Over the whole examined period 10 % samples turned out to be contaminated and one forth of them contained the toxin in quanti- ties exceeding maximum permissible levels (MPL). DON occurrence amounted to 24–42 % in years of mass epiphytoties (1989, 1992 and 1993) as well as in crops gathered in 2014 and 2017; DON was detected in quantities exceeding MPL in 9–27 % of examined samples in those years. 78 % contaminated samples came from Southern and North-Caucasian FD and another 10 % were from Far Eastern FD. A significant correlation between DON occurrence and a number of rainy and sunny days in May was established on the example of wheat samples from Krasnodar region. Analysis of contamination dy- namics has revealed that over the last years there has been an ascending trend in frequency of DON detection in wheat that came not only from regions where Fusarium head blight was widely spread but also from regions in North-western, Siberian and Volga FD. Health risks related to DON intake with wheat grains processing products were assessed; the assessment revealed that DON intake higher than tolerable daily intake (TDI) for the residents of Southern and North-Caucasian FD in 1992, 1993, 2014 and 2017. Average occurrence of DON was 4.2; 11.9; 3.0 and 0.6 % for barley, corn, rye, and oats samples and its maximum contents amounted to 8.95; 0.95; 0.96 and 0.44 mg/kg accordingly. Just as it was the case with wheat, the most of contami- nated samples came from Southern, North-Caucasian and Far Eastern FD. Contamination tended to grow for all the exam- ined grains and it calls for relevant measures aimed at controlling food grains safety

Deoxynivalenol Occurrence in Triticale Crops in Romania during the 2012-2014 Period with Extreme Weather Events.

This article aims to evaluate deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale crops in Romania in years with extreme weather events (2012: Siberian anticyclone with cold waves and heavy snowfall; 2013 and 2014: “Vb” cyclones with heavy precipitation and floods in spring). The deoxynivalenol level in triticale samples (N = 236) was quantified by ELISA. In Romania, the extreme weather events favoured deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale in Transylvania and the Southern Hilly Area (44–47° N, 22–25° E) with a humid/balanced-humid temperate continental climate, luvisols and high/very high risk of floods. Maximum deoxynivalenol contamination was lower in the other regions, although heavy precipitation in May–July 2014 was higher, with chernozems having higher aridity. Multivariate analysis of the factors influencing deoxynivalenol occurrence in triticale showed at least a significant correlation for all components of variation source (agricultural year, agricultural region, average of deoxynivalenol, average air temperature, cumulative precipitation, soil moisture reserve, aridity indices) (p-value < 0.05). The spatial and geographic distribution of deoxynivalenol in cereals in the countries affected by the 2012–2014 extreme weather events revealed a higher contamination in Central Europe compared to southeastern and eastern Europe. Deoxynivalenol occurrence in cereals was favoured by local and regional agroclimatic factors and was amplified by extreme weather events.

Mycotoxins in wheat cultivated in the Netherlands: results from eight years of field surveys

In the period 2009–2018, an annual field survey with commercial arable farms in the Netherlands was held, to collect data on agronomics of wheat fields as well as mycotoxin concentrations of the specific wheat field at harvest. In total, 293 full farm field records over 8 years were obtained. This study aimed to investigate (i) the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) and other mycotoxins, as well as correlations between these mycotoxins, and (ii) the relationships between agronomics and the DON concentration in wheat kernels for wheat cultivated in the Netherlands. Results showed that mycotoxins most frequently observed in concentrations above the limit of quantification were DON, enniatin B and B1, HT-2 toxin, zearalenone (ZEN) and nivalenol. On average, DON was detected in 54% of the samples (> 50 µg/kg) ranging from 19 to 92% depending on the year. Positive samples (> 50 µg/kg) had DON concentrations ranging 53–15,400 µg/kg, with a median of 228 µg/kg. Co-occurrence between DON and ZEN as well as between each of DON and ZEN with their modified forms was confirmed by the data of this study. The year influenced the DON concentration in wheat the most, followed by the region. The results of this study show that DON levels in wheat can only be influenced in a limited manner by agronomic practices such as the use of fungicides against Fusarium spp. around flowering, crop rotation, or the use of resistant wheat cultivars.

Occurrences of Deoxynivalenol, Zearalenone and some of their masked forms in selected cereals from Southwest Nigeria

The study determined the occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN) and their metabolites in staple cereals from Southwest Nigeria. Sixty composite samples of maize, sorghum and millet were evaluated for DON, ZEN and their masked forms; 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3Ac-DON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15Ac-DON), α-zearalenone (α-ZEL) and β-zearalenone (β-ZEL). Deoxynivalenol did not co-occur with ZEN in maize, sorghum and millet samples in contrast to previous reports. Only the masked forms; 3Ac-DON occurred in few maize samples within the range < LOQ-24 μg/kg and one millet sample at a concentration of 16 μg/kg. The levels of ZEN in maize and sorghum samples were lower than the maximum limit of 100 μg/kg set by the European Union for ZEN. However, two millet samples exceeded this limit with concentration of 152 and 396 μg/kg. The percentage incidence for α-ZEL was 100% for maize, sorghum and millet samples while the percentage incidence of β-ZEL was 100% for maize and millet and 95% for sorghum samples. Regardless of the low levels of these mycotoxins, particularly DON, the high incidence rates are of concern as there could be synergistic or additive effects from ZEN and its masked forms.

Determination of aflatoxin M1 and deoxynivalenol biomarkers in infants and children urines from Bangladesh

The mycotoxins aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and deoxynivalenol (DON) are found worldwide in crops and dietary staples. The prevalence and levels of these contaminants can vary greatly, and data in Bangladeshi food commodities are scarce. To characterize human exposure, we have conducted biomonitoring, analyzing AFM1 (a metabolite of AFB1) and DON levels in urines of adult cohorts in Bangladesh. Yet, AFM1 and DON occurrence has not been studied in the very young population of this country. Thus, the same methods, HPLC-FD for AFM1 and LC–MS/MS for DON analysis, were now applied to determine these biomarkers in urines of infants (n = 49) and young children (n = 105) in Rajshahi and Dhaka district. Overall, AFM1 and DON detection frequency was 43.5% and 33.4%, with 34.7% and 11.5% in infant and 47.6% and 39.4% in children urines, respectively. The mean AFM1 levels in all infants (9.1 ± 14.3, max 55.6 pg/mL) and children (8.8 ± 12.9, max 75.3 pg/mL) were not significantly different. The AFM1 mean level was slightly higher in Dhaka (9.4 ± 12.4) compared to Rajshahi (8.5 ± 13.9 pg/mL) district. The average DON level was about 2-fold higher in infant (3.8 ± 2.9, max 6.8 ng/mL) than children urines (1.6 ± 1.8, max 8.6 ng/mL), and higher in Rajshahi (2.1 ± 2.3 ng/mL) than Dhaka (1.4 ± 1.6 ng/mL) district. The biomarker-based estimated average daily DON intake (29.6 ± 108.3 ng/kg bw in infants and 36.4 ± 81.8 ng/kg bw in children) or the maximum exposure (560 ng/kg bw) do not exceed the current maximum provisional tolerable daily intake value of 1 µg/kg bw for DON, although DON exposure in infants and children is higher than that of Bangladeshi adults. The AFM1 urine levels in young children are somewhat lower than those found previously in adult cohorts in Bangladesh, but the frequent detection of this biomarker for AFB1 exposure raises further concerns, also for this vulnerable part of the population. Therefore, continuous surveillance for aflatoxins in Bangladeshi food commodities is clearly required, first to identify major sources of intake and then to reduce exposure.

The biological detoxification of deoxynivalenol: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON), which is one of the most common mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species, is often found known to contaminated food and feed all around the world. It usually causes diarrhea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal inflammation in both humans and animals. At present, one promising method of dealing with this mycotoxin is to detoxify it biologically using microbes or enzymes. Some microorganisms have the ability to absorb or degrade mycotoxins before gastrointestinal absorption occurs. Many fungi and bacteria have been reported to be able to play a role in the biological detoxification of DON. In this review, the occurrence of DON in food and its toxic effects are presented and the mechanisms by which DON can be detoxified biologically are also discussed. Then, the progress made in detoxifying DON in recent years using fungi, bacteria, and enzymes is summarized in more detail. Future developments relating to DON detoxification are also evaluated. The overall purpose of this paper is to provide a reliable reference source for the biological detoxification of DON.

The contamination of Fabaceae plants with fungi and mycotoxins

This study aimed to assess the contamination of Fabaceae plants with fungi and mycotoxins, which have a negative effect on the health of consumers of plant products. Quantitative PCR was used to analyse the DNA of Alternaria, Cladosporium and Fusarium fungi in 69 plant samples harvested from four Russian regions in 2015. Additionally, mycotoxins were analysed using ELISA. Cladosporium fungi DNA was found in all the analysed samples; the occurrence of Alternaria and Fusarium DNA was 84% and 51%, respectively. Mycotoxin alternariol was detected in 100% and emodin in 90% of the samples. The occurrence of deoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol and T-2/HT-2 mycotoxins was 32%, 42% and 41%, respectively. Plant species had no significant effect on the Alternaria, Cladosporium and Fusarium DNA content of the samples; however, the alternariol, emodin, deoxynivalenol and diacetoxyscirpenol contents differed significantly between plant species. The geographical origin had a statistically significant effect on the Alternaria and Fusarium DNA contents, likely due to differences in weather conditions.

Co-Occurrence of Moniliformin and Regulated Fusarium Toxins in Maize and Wheat Grown in Italy.

The co-occurrence of moniliformin (MON), fumonisins (FBs), and deoxynivalenol (DON) was evaluated in maize, durum, and common wheat grown in different experimental fields located in several Italian regions. MON was quantified using a LC-MS/MS method adding lanthanum ions in the mobile phase. In maize, MON contamination was widespread and considerable; the toxin was detected in almost all the samples (95.1%) and exceeded 500 and 1000 µg kg−1 in 42.0% and in 18.5% of samples, respectively. Significant positive correlation was found between MON and FB contamination levels. When there were not droughty climate conditions, a positive significant correlation was found between growing degree days (GDD) and MON values. In wheat, MON contamination was not widespread like in maize and it was lower in common wheat than in durum wheat. In durum wheat, MON was detected in 45.0% of the samples with only 6 samples (7.5%) exceeding 500 µg kg−1, while in common wheat the toxin was detected above the LOD in 18.7% of samples exceeding 100 µg kg−1 in only two samples (2.5%). No correlation was found with DON contamination. Climate conditions influenced both MON and DON occurrence.

OCCURRENCE OF DEOXYNIVALENOL IN BEERS COMMERCIALISED IN ITALY

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most frequently detected mycotoxin in beer. This study represents a comprehensive assessment of DON occurrence in beers from the Italian market. Seventy-two craft and industrial beer samples were tested using the RIDASCREEN DON® ELISA method. DON was found in all samples. The average DON contamination was 34.3 ug/L (range: 6.1-111.2 ug/L). The highest contamination level was found in a wheat-based sample. Our study determined that wheat-based beers have a higher DON contamination than barley-based beers. Further studies are needed to verify the role of single ingredients on the risk of DON accumulation in beers.

Mycotoxicological monitoring. Part 1. Complete mixed feed for pigs and poultry (2009–2018)

Results of the ten-year annual mycotoxicological testing of complete mixed feeds for pigs and poultry submitted by holdings and processing establishments located in the Northwestern, Central, Southern, Volga and Ural Federal Districts are presented. Competitive ELISA tests showed that the occurrence of T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenon, fumonisines B, alternariol, ochratoxin A, citrinin, mycophenolic acid, ergoalkoloids and emodin was about 5% and quantities thereof varied within one or three orders; quantities of T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenon, fumonisines, and ochratoxin A might exceed maximum admissible levels for feed grains. Diacetoxyscirpenol, aflatoxin В1, sterigmatocystin and cyclopiazonic acid belonged to group of rare contaminants. Level of feed contamination with T-2 toxin and emodin was found to be consistently high during the said period; in some of the years occurrence of deoxynivalenol, fumonisines as well as ochra­toxin A, citrinin, mycophenolic acid and ergoalkoloids increased. In 2016–2018, mixed feed contamination with alternariol increased whereas contamination with fumonizin steadily decreased and level of zearalenon occurrence remained consistently low. Evidence for a wide occurrence of emodin known as “diarrheic factor” as well as for sporadic increase in mixed feed contamination with alternariol, citrinin, mycophenolic acid, mycotoxins having the highly dangerous toxic impact and long-term adverse effects, was detected for the first time. These data confirmed the need for their inclusion into the regulated group of substances significant for public health. General features of pig and poultry feed contamination as well as usefulness of regional surveys for intoxication risk prediction are described. Special attention is paid to the importance of the projects for creation of common information resources that could become a unique scientific basis for innovations in feed poisoning prevention. Original monitoring data systematized and summarized in the paper are given in electronic format in section Additional materials.

Adsorption of Deoxynivalenol (DON) from Corn Steep Liquor (CSL) by the Microsphere Adsorbent SA/CMC Loaded with Calcium.

The occurrence of deoxynivalenol (DON) in animal feed is a serious issue for the livestock industry. Approaches using mycotoxin adsorbents are key to decreasing mycotoxin carryover from contaminated feed to animals. In this paper, a novel functional microsphere adsorbent comprising an alginate/carboxymethyl cellulose sodium composite loaded with calcium (SA/CMC-Ca) was prepared by an emulsification process to adsorb DON from polluted corn steep liquor (CSL) containing DON at a concentration of 3.60 μg/mL. Batch experiments were conducted under different experimental conditions: CSL volumes, reaction times, desorption times, and microsphere recyclability. Results showed that 5 g of microspheres reacted with 5 mL of DON-polluted CSL for 5 min, the microspheres can be recycled 155 times, and the maximum DON adsorption for the microspheres was 2.34 μg/mL. During recycling, microspheres were regenerated by deionized water every time; after the microspheres were cleaned, DON in the deionized water was degraded by sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 70 °C for 1 h at pH 12. The mechanism for physical adsorption and hydrogen bonding was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report showing that the microsphere adsorbent SA/CMC-Ca adsorbs DON. Therefore, we suggest that using microsphere absorbents would be a possible way to address DON-contaminated CSL issues in animal feed.