Occupational Rewards Research Articles

Intrinsic work value–reward dissonance and work satisfaction during young adulthood

Previous research suggests that discrepancies between work values and rewards are indicators of dissonance that induce change in both to reduce such dissonance over time. The present study elaborates this model to suggest parallels with the first phase of the extension- and-strain curve. Small discrepancies or small increases in extension are presumed to be almost unnoticeable, while increasingly large discrepancies are thought to yield exponentially increasing strain. Work satisfaction is a principal outcome of dissonance; hence, work value-reward discrepancies are predicted to diminish work satisfaction in an exponential fashion. Findings from the work and family literature, however, lead to the prediction that this curvilinear association will be moderated by gender and family roles. Using longitudinal data spanning the third decade of life, the results suggest that intrinsic work value-reward discrepancies, as predicted, are increasingly associated, in a negative curvilinear fashion, with work satisfaction. This pattern, however, differs as a function of gender and family roles. Females who established family roles exhibited the expected pattern while other gender by family status groups did not. The results suggest that gender and family roles moderate the association between intrinsic work value-reward dissonance and satisfaction. In addition, women who remained unmarried and childless exhibited the strongest associations between occupational rewards and satisfaction.

How does race operate among Asian Americans in the labor market?: Occupational segregation and different rewards by occupation among native-born Chinese American and Japanese American male workers

The effect of race in the U.S. labor market has long been controversial. One posits that racial effects have been diminished since the civil rights movement of the 1960s (Alba & Nee, 2003; Sakamoto, Wu, & Tzeng, 2000; Wilson, 1980). Even if some disparities in labor-market outcomes among race groups are found, advocates of this “declining significance of race” thesis do not attribute these disparities to racial discrimination. They, instead, understand the racial gaps as a result of class composition of racial minority groups, classes represented by larger proportions of the working-class population (Wilson, 1980, 1997) as well as unskilled-immigrant workers (Borjas, 1994).

Predictors of the discrepancy between calendar and biological age

The rate of ageing can differ considerably between individuals. This might result in major differences between calendar age (CA) and biological age (BA). To identify work- and health-related predictors of the discrepancy between CA and BA. The sample analysed in this study consisted of 371 subjects of different occupational groups (teachers, office workers, nursery school teachers and managers). BA was measured with the vitality measuring station, which recorded 45 vitality indicators of physical, mental and social functions. Work ability index, effort-reward imbalance and relaxation inability were measured to determine work- and health-related predictors. The greatest discrepancy between CA and BA (9 years) was found for the subgroup of managers, followed by female teachers (5 years). Managers showed also the best results in work ability, the effort-reward balance and relaxation ability. By means of multiple regression analysis, particularly mental attitudes and resources towards work, occupational reward and the body fat percentage were identified as relevant predictors for the discrepancy between CA and BA. Our study indicates that not only health- but also work-related factors are associated with vitality and BA of employees. We assume that measures focused on promoting of health (healthy diet and physical activities) and improving working conditions (e.g. job satisfaction and social support and stress prevention) may also affect the ageing process positively.

Occupational rewards relate to sickness absence frequency but not duration

Work stress is an important problem that shifted sickness absence research to the psychosocial work environment at the expense of physical or chemical hazards. Most studies investigated the psychosocial work environment using the Demand-Control model. However, this model does not consider coping styles which are important in absenteeism. The Effort-Reward Imbalance model takes coping into account. Little is known about occupational rewards and their relationship with sickness absence. This study investigated the relations between occupational rewards and the frequency and duration of sickness absence among 366 workers. The data of 326 employees (89%) were suitable for statistical analysis. Rewards in terms of job esteem (OR = 0.64; 95% CI = 0.47-0.87) and job perspectives (OR = 0.59; 95% CI = 0.57-0.84) were negatively related to the absence frequency in men. Satisfaction with income (OR = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.35-0.81) was negatively related to the absence frequency in women. Occupational rewards were not associated with the mean duration of absence episodes. The associations we found warrant more attention for occupational rewards in sickness absence research.

Maternity Leave In The Ninth Month of Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes Among Working Women

The health effects of antenatal maternity leave have been scarcely evaluated. In California, women are eligible for paid benefits up to 4 weeks before delivery. We explored whether leave at > or =36 weeks gestation increases gestation and birthweight, and reduces primary cesarean deliveries among full-time working women. Drawing from a 2002--2003 nested case-control study of preterm birth and low birthweight among working women in Southern California, we compared a cohort of women who took leave (n = 62) or worked until delivery (n = 385). Models weighted for probability of sampling were used to calculate hazards ratios for gestational age, odds ratios (OR) for primary cesarean delivery, and multilinear regression coefficients for birthweight. Leave-takers were similar to non-leave-takers on demographic and health characteristics, except that more clerical workers took leave (p = .02). Compared with non-leave-takers, leave-takers had almost 4 times lower odds of cesarean delivery after adjusting for covariates (OR, 0.27; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.08-0.94). Overall, there were no marked differences in length of gestation or mean birthweight. However, in a subgroup of women whose efforts outstripped their occupational rewards, gestation was prolonged (hazard ratio for delivery each day between 36 and 41 weeks, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.34-0.93). Maternity leave in late pregnancy shows promise for reducing cesarean deliveries and prolonging gestation in occupationally strained women.

Relation between burnout syndrome and job satisfaction among mental health workers.

To identify predictors of burnout syndrome, such as job satisfaction and manifestations of occupational stress, in mental health workers. The study included a snowball sample of 174 mental health workers in Croatia. The following measurement instruments were used: Maslach Burnout Inventory, Manifestations of Occupational Stress Survey, and Job Satisfaction Survey. We correlated dimensions of burnout syndrome with job satisfaction and manifestations of occupational stress dimensions. We also performed multiple regression analysis using three dimensions of burnout syndrome--emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that pay and rewards satisfaction (beta=-0.37), work climate (beta=-0.18), advancement opportunities (beta=0.17), the degree of psychological (beta=0.41), and physical manifestations of occupational stress (beta=0.29) were significant predictors of emotional exhaustion (R=0.76; F=30.02; P<0.001). The frequency of negative emotional and behavioral reactions toward patients and colleagues (beta=0.48), psychological (beta=0.27) and physical manifestations of occupational stress (beta=0.24), and pay and rewards satisfaction (beta=0.22) were significant predictors of depersonalization (R=0.57; F=13,01; P<0.001). Satisfaction with the work climate (beta=-0.20) was a significant predictor of lower levels of personal accomplishment (R=0.20; F=5.06; P<0.005). Mental health workers exhibited a moderate degree of burnout syndrome, but there were no significant differences regarding their occupation. Generally, both dimensions of job satisfaction and manifestations of occupational stress proved to be relevant predictors of burnout syndrome.

Job Stress, Gene Polymorphism of β 2-AR, and Prevalence of Hypertension

To study the interactive effect of job stress and genetic susceptibility (or gene polymorphism) on hypertension. A cross-sectional epidemiological study was conducted in 452 workers from a thermal power plant in China. Extrinsic effort, occupational reward, and over-commitment were measured. Hypertensive patients were defined by three phases of screening, reexamination, and final diagnosis. beta2-AR genotypes and allele frequencies at amino acid positions 16 (beta2-AR-16: Arg-->Gly) and 27 (beta2-AR-27: Gln-->Glu) were identified by PCR-RFLP. Job stress was related with the prevalence of hypertension in males (P < 0.05), whereas no significant relationship was found in females (P > 0.05). Differences in genotypes and allele frequencies of the beta2-AR-16 were statistically significant between the hypertension and control groups (P < 0.05), whereas those of beta2-AR-27 were not (P > 0.05). The prevalence of hypertension was higher in individuals carrying Gly16 allele than in those carrying Arg16 allele of the high job stress group (P < 0.01 or 0.05). High job stress and polymorphism of beta2-AR-16 have an interactive effect on the prevalence of hypertension in male workers.

High technology workers and total rewards

This literature review suggests that the Total Rewards approach has some promise in the management of high technology workers primarily because of its broad definition of rewards. It also suggests that the rewards preference profile of high technology workers is different from that of other occupational categories and rewards programs for high technology workers should therefore be different. Research directions to verify these findings are suggested. Researchers also need to address the current lack of a sound, broadly accepted theoretical basis for Total Rewards.

Team-Based Pay in the United Kingdom

This article describes a trial of team pay in the U.K. health service. The trial aimed to test whether performance improvement could be encouraged through the use of rewards in settings where individual performance-related pay might be inappropriate. The pilot used a number of different sized teams and a variety of occupational groups and reward options—from cash to improvement funds. The experiment produced many service and organizational benefits. At the successful sites, more positive staff attitudes were also in evidence. The article acknowledges that some sites did not deliver as well as others and explores the reasons why. In conclusion, the article looks at success factors that might be applicable elsewhere: clear scheme purpose and leadership in the context of staff trust in management; with clear and simple targets, supported by reliable data; and good quality project management, including skilled communication. Optimal team size and structure depends on the scheme’s objectives.

Relationships of Occupational Stress to Insomnia and Short Sleep in Japanese Workers

The aims of this study were to (a) examine the association between occupational stress and insomnia and short sleep in Japanese workers and (b) demonstrate the difference between 2 occupational stress models-Effort Reward Imbalance and the Demand Control Model. All data were obtained via self-administrated questionnaires and annual health checkups. Insomnia was evaluated by the Athens Insomnia Scale, and short sleep was defined as less than 6 hours sleep per day. Employees at local governments and a transit company who had annual health checkups during the period from April 2003 to March 2004. After excluding participants without complete data, data from 6,997 men and 1,773 women were analyzed. N/A. In men, high occupational stresses were significantly associated with insomnia, especially a high level of Effort Reward Imbalance (defined as the presence of high effort and low reward), had a remarkably higher odds ratio. In women, high occupational stresses were significantly associated with insomnia as well. High occupational stresses were significantly associated with short sleep in men. However, in women, only Effort Reward Imbalance showed a significant association with short sleep. This study suggested that occupational stress is a possible risk factor for insomnia and short sleep.

Different effort constructs and effort-reward imbalance: effects on employee well-being in ancillary health care workers.

The present study investigates the relationship between Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) and employee well-being, using three different concepts of efforts (i.e. psychological demands, physical demands and emotional demands). The ERI model had been used as a theoretical framework, indicating that work stress is related to high efforts (i.e. job demands) and low occupational rewards (e.g. money, esteem and security/career opportunities). The ERI model also predicts that, in overcommitted workers, effects of ERI on employee well-being are stronger compared with their less committed counterparts. A cross-sectional survey among 167 ancillary health care workers of two nursing homes was conducted. Multiple univariate logistic regression analyses were used to test the relationship between ERI and employee well-being. Results of the logistic regression analyses showed that employees with both high (psychological, physical and emotional) efforts and low rewards had higher risks of psychosomatic health complaints, physical health symptoms and job dissatisfaction (odds ratios (ORs) ranged from 5.09 to 18.55). Moreover, employees who reported both high efforts and high rewards had elevated risks of physical symptoms and exhaustion (ORs ranged from 6.17 to 9.39). No support was found for the hypothesis on the moderating effect of overcommitment. Results show some support for the ERI model; ancillary health care workers with high effort/low reward imbalance had elevated risks of poor employee well-being. In addition, results show that the combination of high efforts and high rewards is important for employee well-being. Finally, some practical implications are discussed to combat work stress in health care work.

Using Earnings Data From the Monthly Current Population Survey

The monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) has collected earnings on individuals' current jobs since 1979 from a quarter of the sample. This paper discusses three unique aspects of the CPS: (1) the 1994 redesign of the CPS data collection methodology, (2) the complex CPS sample design, and (3) the top coding of CPS earnings data. Failure to account for these unique features of the CPS may result in biased estimates and invalid research conclusions. The first part of the paper discusses the motivation for and the effect of changes implemented with the 1994 redesign. To facilitate comparisons over time, adjustment factors to be applied to mean and median hourly earnings, along with 90th and 10th percentile cutoffs, were estimated. Examination of these adjustment factors indicates that failing to account for the redesign could lead to serious mismeaurement in the patterns and magnitude of earnings inequality over time. A common misconception about the CPS is that it is a simple random sample, when in reality it has a complex multistage sample design. The second and third parts of this paper discuss properly accounting for the complex design of the CPS and obtaining design consistent point estimates and variances through the use of weights and replicate methods such as Balanced Repeated Replication (BRR). As part of the discussion of sample weights, a simple test for whether using weights is appropriate is presented. Throughout the discussion of properly accounting for the complex design of the CPS, the effects are illustrated using a standard OLS log earnings regression model. Comparison of results indicate that not properly accounting for the CPS's sample design can significantly underestimate or even reverse some of the estimated effects of education, being in certain minority groups, occupational rewards, or living in certain regions of the country. The paper concludes with a discussion of the effect of top coding individuals' earnings above a certain amount to a predetermined value. Comparison of estimates generated using original confidential untop coded data and publicly released non-confidential top coded data indicate that even though only a small proportion of earnings are top coded, top coding can lead to statistically significant differences, both with respect to simple arithmetic means and parameter estimates from OLS regression models. However, fitting a Pareto distribution to the tail of the earnings distribution using a modified maximum likelihood was found to provide estimates that usually were quite close to those obtained when no top coding was imposed.

Entry, Maintenance and Departure from a Career in the Sex Industry: Strippers’ Experiences of Occupational Costs and Rewards

L'industrie du sexe comprend un bon nombre d'activites rentables et permet d'employer beaucoup de personnel. Grâce a cet article, l'A. nous aide a mieux comprendre la vie de ces employes car il retrace l'experiences de ces femmes (par rapport aux hommes) et explique comment elles menent leurs carrieres

Job strain, effort-reward imbalance and employee well-being: a large-scale cross-sectional study

This study investigated the effects of the Job Demand-Control (JD-C) Model and the Effort-Reward Imbalance (ERI) Model on employee well-being. A cross-sectional survey was conducted comprising a large representative sample of 11,636 employed Dutch men and women. Logistic regression analyses were used. Controlling for job sector, demographic characteristics (including educational level) and managerial position, employees reporting high job demands (i.e. psychological and physical demands) and low job control had elevated risks of emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic and physical health complaints and job dissatisfaction (odds ratios ranged from 2.89 to 10.94). Odds ratios were generally higher in employees reporting both high (psychological and physical) efforts and low rewards (i.e. poor salary, job insecurity and low work support): they ranged from 3.23 to 15.43. Furthermore, overcommitted people had higher risks of poor well-being due to a high effort — low reward mismatch (ORs: 3.57–20.81) than their less committed counterparts (ORs: 3.01–12.71). Finally, high efforts and low occupational rewards were stronger predictors of poor well-being than low job control when both job stress models were simultaneously adjusted. In conclusion, our findings show independent cumulative effects of both the JD-C Model and the ERI Model on employee well-being and are not significantly different in men and women as well as in young and old people. In particular, high (psychological and physical) efforts and low rewards adversely affected employee well-being. Preliminary findings also indicate excess risks of poor well-being in overcommitted persons suffering from high cost — low gain conditions at work.

Rafting the rapids: Occupational hazards, rewards, and coping strategies of psychotherapists.

In today's market, clinical practitioners have complex and demanding jobs. This survey study identified contemporary occupational hazards, rewards, and coping strategies of 208 psychotherapists and the interrelationships among these variables. Unexpected post hoc gender differences revealed that female therapists reported significantly more rewards and coping strategies than men. Suggestions are offered for how practitioners can promote their own job satisfaction. Implications for supervisors and trainers of psychotherapists are also discussed.

Rafting the rapids: Occupational hazards, rewards, and coping strategies of psychotherapists.

Rafting the rapids: Occupational hazards, rewards, and coping strategies of psychotherapists.

Chronic work stress, sickness absence, and hypertension in middle managers: General or specific sociological explanations?

The issue of differential prediction of health outcomes by sociological models of work stress has received little attention so far. This paper argues, both on theoretical and empirical grounds, that active coping with the experience of chronic work stress is more likely to be associated with physical health consequences of sustained autonomic arousal such as hypertension, whereas passive coping may a cross-sectional study on 189 male middle-aged (40–55, 48.3 ± 4.6 years) middle managers in a car-producing company in Germany, this hypothesis is tested in the framework of the theoretical model of effort-reward imbalance at work. More specifically, the simultaneous manifestation of high effort and low reward at work, indicative of active coping, is expected to statistically predict the risk of being hypertensive. Conversely, suffering from low occupational rewards in the absence of signs of sustained effort, indicative of passive coping, is expected to predict sickness absence (SA) behavior. Multivariate odds ratios (OR) derived from logistic regression analysis and adjusted for important confounders indicate that three measures of low reward are associated with short-term SA (OR ranging from 3.30 to 9.15), that one measure of low reward is associated with long-term SA (OR: 2.67) and that two measures of low reward are associated with number of SA episodes (OR 4.05 and 6.33), whereas no indicator of high effort at work is significantly associated with SA. On the other hand, the OR of being hypertensive is 5.77 in middle managers who suffer from high effort and low reward simultaneously. In conclusion, a sociological model of work stress which allows for differential prediction of health outcomes according to the important notions of active versus passive coping with work demands finds preliminary empirical support.

Professional Deceit: Normal Lying in an Occupational Setting

Abstract Normal lies are those that social actors legitimate as appropriate means to desirable outcomes. Such lies have been acknowledged in the literature as tools for maintaining social order. Yet, little has been done to document the social structural sources of normal lying. This paper offers a first step in filling this research gap, examining aspects of occupational structure and their connection to the practice of normal lying. Specifically, we discuss four dimensions of occupational structure — occupational rewards and entry requirements, occupational loyalties, social control styles within an occupation, and an occupation's level of professionalization — and we explore the ways in which these dimensions influence normal lying activity. Real estate, a field in which the practice of normal lying is quite common, serves as our case study of the occupational sphere. We conclude our analysis by discussing the implications of our findings for other occupations and for society at large.

Class, Prospects and the Life-cycle: Explaining the Association between Class Position and Political Preferences

This paper examines the role of promotion prospects in explaining class differences in political preferences at different points in the life-cycle. The argument contains four main propositions. First, that present resources are often discounted in favour of future rewards when making political choices. Second, that the extent of future rewards is a key distinguishing characteristic of social classes Third, that differential perceptions of future opportunities for rewards will lead to individuals in different classes preferring parties that are at different points along a left-right continuum. Fourth, that with age there is a diminishing utility of future rewards and increasing importance is therefore attached to present resources, which reduces the discounting of present for future rewards when making political choices. These hypotheses are tested using British national survey data The evidence, although of a limited nature, supports all four propositions. It is concluded, tentatively, that class differences in left-right partisanship among young people are primarily a result of class differences in expectations concerning future occupational rewards. Among older respondents, however, present resources are of considerably greater importance in explaining political divisions between classes. Empm cal support is therefore obtained for the role of prospective rewards in providing individuals in different classes with divergent interests, but this role diminishes in importance as the future foreshortens.

Theories of Gender Stratification

Gender stratification theories are reviewed in light of their causal assumptions, empirical evidence, and “agency” and “equity” implications. Agency involves the relative capacity of the individual to influence occupational outcomes; equity pertains to the perceived fairness of occupational rewards. It is concluded that the empirical support for the structural functionalist, structural barriers, cognitive, normative barriers, and normative alternative theories of gender stratification is either contradictory, equivocal, or limited. Further compounding the mixed empirical record is that the method used by many proponents of the structural barriers approach to measure sex discrimination is based on a logical fallacy that confuses outcome with process. Finally, the theories make quite divergent assumptions concerning agency and equity. These differences lead to contradictory conclusions about the degree that individuals, and particularly women, can control their occupational destiny, the possibility of increased gender egalitarianism, and the logic and efficacy of conservative, liberal, and radical political agendas.