Occupation Era Research Articles

Radiocarbon dating of the Peruvian Chachapoya/Inca site at the Laguna de los Condores

In 1997 a new archaeological site was discovered in the Peruvian tropical rain forest. The site is located in an area which has been occupied by the Chachapoya, a pre-Incan people, from about 800AD on. The site comprises a large funerary place with several mausoleums built in the cliffs next to the Laguna de los Condores. More than 200 human mummies and funerary bone-bundles together with numerous grave artefacts have been found there. Although the site has been ascribed to the Chachapoya, the mummification method used is very similar to the one applied by the Inca. As part of an ongoing multidisciplinary project to explore the history of this site and of the Chachapoya people, twenty-seven (27) 14C-AMS age determinations were performed. Samples, bones and textile wrappings as well as samples from a funerary bone bundle plus associated grave artefacts were dated. The 14C data show that the site originates from the Chachapoya pre-Inca period and that in addition, it was used as a funerary place during the subsequent Inca occupation era. The radiocarbon results indicate that the Chachapoya may have changed their burial tradition due to the colonization by the Inca.

Japanese Feminism and Commercialized Sex: The Union of Militarism and Prohibitionism

This essay examines the relationship between US policy toward commercialized sex, known as the 'American Plan', and postwar Japan's prohibitionism in the context of changes in the global management of commercialized sex over the course of the 20th century, and reconsiders the meaning of prohibitionism for feminism. It draws on the existing literature on prostitution from Japan and abroad, the publications of the International Abolitionist Federation (IAF), and the records of local governments, among other sources. In the first section of this essay, it examines the details of the American Plan, which constitutes the United States's first clear institutionalization of prohibitionism during World War I. In the following two sections, it turns to the influence of the American Plan on the reorganization of the Japanese prostitution system during the Occupation era, and the participation of Japanese feminists in that process. Finally, the essay concludes by problematizing the affinities between the system of prostitution prevention and the US-Japan security alliance.

The Era of Multilateral Occupation

Conventional wisdom holds that international is a temporary byproduct of war. The international law of is grounded in this assumption and consists of a substantive norm of interim administration with limited discretion on the part of the occupant and a procedural norm of unilateralism. Yet many observers of the occupations of Iraq and Afghanistan intuitively sense that modern occupations are somehow different and that new or changed rules apply. That intuition is correct. This Article describes the emergence of a new regime of and an emerging facto modern law of occupation that break dramatically from past practice and the de jure law of occupation. The substantive norm of this new model is nation-building and the procedural norm is multilateralism. The assumptions and parameters of the de jure law of are outdated and incapable of providing a meaningful legal framework for modern occupations. What are the consequences of this new model of and the resultant lacuna of applicable international law? The of Iraq illustrates a paradigm shift in the practice of and proves that the resource and legitimacy needs of modern occupations create an invisible hand that pushes occupying powers toward international cooperation and compliance with international norms of behavior. At the same time, however, the era of multilateral contains defects because its de facto rules lack the advantages of positive law and the legal status of territory occupied by the United Nations is ambiguous.

Making sunday what it actually should be: sunday radio programming and the re-invention of tradition in occupied Germany 1945–1949

Germany at the end of the Second World War was not only a shattered place, but also a shattered time.1 The physical scattering of populations through the mass movements of war and the atomisation of individuals through the oppressive Nazi regime, followed by occupation and the division of Germany into four occupation zones, left Germans with very few collective ‘events’ into which they could place their individual experiences. Oral history and other histories of everyday life consistently reveal that the major milestones of political history, the start of the war in 1939, its end on 8 May 1945, and the founding of the two German states in 1949, did not represent biographical milestones for most of those who lived through the period. Instead, they more frequently remember the war's interruption of their ‘normal’ everyday lives and the markers of the onset of normality at some point in the years that followed. In the place of the war's beginning on 30 September 1939 stand memories of the defeat of the Germa...

Australia's policy towards East Timor

Ambiguity and inconsistency governed Australia's East Timor policy during the Indonesian occupation era. Contradictions sometimes emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as foreign ministers' expressed sympathy with the East Timorese was insufficient to persuade prime ministers who valued the maintenance of strong ties with Indonesia. Australia's later shift from a pro‐Indonesia to a pro‐UN policy did not imply a pro‐East Timor one. Economic influences were significant, with Australian endorsement of Indonesia's sovereign right in East Timor a prerequisite for a treaty on sharing of natural resources in the Timor Gap.

Transformation of Korean Film Industry During the US Military Occupation Era (1945 – 1948)

The topic of this paper is how the Korean film industry; ownership, distribution, and production was transformed by the economic and film policies, and how the increase of American influence during the USAMGIK era (1945-1948) influenced film distribution and release practice in Korea

By women, for women: Japanese women’s attitudes towards employment in the Occupation era

This article deals with Japanese women and employment in the years during and immediately following the Allied Occupation (1945 to 1952). Through the use of public opinion polls conducted by the Prime Minister's Office, women's attitudes towards employment will be diagrammed within the context of larger emergent employment patterns. It will argue that although external influences and institutions circumscribed female employment activities, women themselves structured their participation in the labour force to reflect a set of priorities, concerns and ideals grounded in a traditionalistic conception of domesticity and motherhood. First, it addresses external factors that at once moulded women's motivations to seek employment while obstructing the emergence of female career-consciousness. Second, it looks at 'internal' reasons (women's self-perceptions and ideals) influencing the lesser normative priority assigned by women to the notion of female employment. In balancing statistical data with anecdotal evidence, and by contextualising the contemporary picture with references to both pre-war influences and post-Occupation developments, this article will interpret the Occupation not in terms of its elite actors, but through the attitudes of everyday women whose influence in the reconstruction of Japan was dynamic and profound.

Germs of disaster: the impact of epidemics on Japanese military campaigns in Taiwan, 1874 and 1895.

This essay highlights the ways in which epidemics shaped Japanese military campaigns in Taiwan in 1874 and again in 1895, as well as subsequent colonial policy after 1895. I have focused on these particular campaigns because a vast body of source materials exists which allows us not only to understand the diseases which ravaged the Japanese forces, but also to determine their effects on particular battles and subsequent Japanese military, foreign and colonial policy. For example, during the 1874 campaign in the southern tip of Taiwan, of the approximately 5,990 men at risk, only 4 soldiers were killed in battle, while 20 succumbed to battle wounds and other injuries. In contrast, 547 men died of disease, particularly malaria. During the 1895 campaign, the Japanese force of just over 50,000 men suffered horrific losses due to epidemics, with 4,642 soldiers dying of diseses as opposed to 164 killed in battle and 515 wounded or injured. Although the Japanese quickly won the war against the resistance forces, their battle against Taiwan's epidemics had only just begun, as thousands of Japanese soldiers and civilians perished during the first ears of the Japanese Occupation era (1895-1945). The Japanese soon realized that they would have to solve Taiwan's public health problems if they were to have any hope of effectively governing their new colony. As a result some of the first regulations of the colonial government concerned sanitation and quarantine measures. All in all, Japanese colonial policy and its colonial modernization of Taiwan appear to have been significantly shaped by fear of the island's epidemics and the need to bring them under control.

The Incomplete Alliance: America and Japan after World War II

At first glance, one might think that these three recent books on American-Japanese relations have little in common. Kyoko Inoue's MacArthur's Japanese Constitution is, as its subtitle indicates, A Linguistic and Cultural Study that refers only infrequently to the history of either country. Richard B. Finn's Winners in Peace surveys the span of the occupation era, from General Douglas MacArthur's imperious arrival after surrender to the signing of the San Francisco peace treaty in 1951. US-Japan Alliance Diplomacy, 1945–1990, by Roger Buckley, represents an ambitious examination of the entire sweep of the alliance period, moving past the occupation years in two brief chapters. Yet there are striking parallel judgments in these works. In fact, these books themselves, or more properly their authors, reveal much about the current study of American-Japanese relations as well as the current state of the bilateral relationship. Inoue, a professor of linguistics, is understandably concerned with...

Geophysical prospecting at archaelogical sites with some examples from northern Greece

The application of geophysical techniques to archaeology is well established. They are used to provide information for planning excavations, either at the outset or while work is in progress, so that the excavations may proceed more quickly and therefore more cheaply. In this paper the role of the geophysics is first discussed, and illustrated with a generalised flow chart to show the steps which should be followed in the investigations. Then several examples of magnetic and electrical surveys, mainly in northern Greece, are presented. Special attention is given to misleading factors which can confuse the interpretation of the data: geological factors, the effects of recent human activities such as the dumping of rubbish and undocumented excavations from the last century; and complicated situations where many features of interest may be buried close to or beneath each other. For the sake of completeness, other geophysical techniques which have been used in archaeological searches are briefly reviewed. Referring to Fig. 1, the first step after undertaking an archaeological project is to consider carefully the archaeological aspects. For a particular site, the era of occupation is usually known or suspected from historical evidence. It is therefore possible to guess the types of structures and remains for which excavation will be taking place. The ancient quarries are usually known for a particular location, so the construction materials which are likely to have been used are known, and their physical properties can be considered with respect to geophysical surveying techniques. The corresponding properties of the overburden may be estimated from geological and geomorphological data, and if a rough estimate of burial depth can be made it is possible to predict the size of geophysical anomalies with respect to background noise. Aerial photos, if they exist, information from the records of local authorities, and information provided by local inhabitants can all be of great importance. Field inspeetion is always necessary before undertaking any geophysical survey. If the site is in an area which is being investigated for the first time, then it is recommended that some field tests be made. Laboratory measurements of the susceptibility and conductivity of the soil and other samples can help in assessing the applicability of geophysical techniques and, later, in the interpretation of results. In some cases it may be desirable to gather samples for geochemical analysis during the field inspection, for example to measure the concentration of organic gases from concealed coal mines. The procedures described above may be regarded as the preliminary stage. It is now necessary to decide whether geophysical techniques should be employed or not. If so, then the acquisition parameters must be chosen for optimum detectability and resolution of buried features. After the survey has commenced, and preferably before it has been completed, the initial results should be considered together with the information gleaned during the preliminary stage. The results need to be sufficiently clear and precise to help the archaeologist decide on excavation procedures.

The Treatment of the “Japanese Occupation Era” in the Historical Studies of Modern Burma

The Treatment of the “Japanese Occupation Era” in the Historical Studies of Modern Burma

Kolaborasi Manifestasi Komunikasi “Kiai Kampoeng”: Komunikasi Politik Kiai NU Masa Pendudukan Jepang

Emotional, cultural, and ideological vicinity between kiai kampoeng and NU’s grassroots community hasmade kiai kampoeng have good sensitivity to them. At Japan occupation era, when NU’s grassroots community in villagearea experience extreme suffering, kiai kampoeng share that experience. Therefore, collaboration with Japan militarygovernment is the best way chosen by kiai kampoeng to perform their religious tradition and saving NU’s grassrootscommunity from suffering.

A Profile of the Japanese Conservative Party

Recently the Japanese conservative leaders have been discussing possible reforms of the party organization and electoral system. Various issues have been hotly debated. Among the points under discussion are-the functions of the Party Policy Investigation Board, the present structure of party management, the presidential election system, the method of party approval for official Diet candidates, local party organization, political contributions, intra-party factions, and the method of electing Representatives and Councillors. On occasion, these discussions have led to serious intra-party conflict, but little progress has been made in reaching agreeable solutions. There is no doubt, however, that the conservatives have raised the primary problems requiring resolution. In essence, these issues must be tackled if an integrated party organization is to be created which can cope with the gradual expansion of the Socialist Party. The Socialists also have a structurall reform plan aimed at strengthening the party so that it may come to power. This plan too has raised internal problems within the party. Thus, both major parties are struggling at the moment to resolve their internal problems. The struggle between two camps in Japanese politics is not new. The postwar political scene has been dominated by two opposing currentsthe conservative and the socialist, often called the progressive. Tn the fall of 1955, the conservative elements were finally organized into the Liberal-Demmocratic Party. This fusion was basically the result of internal and external reactions against the system of political control constructed by Prime Minister Yoshida during the Occupation era. The struggles among the conservatives after the end of the Occupation (1952) were very complicated, but they were mainly concerned with Yoshida his methods and the questions of his resignation and successor. Yoshida had strong support from the entrenched conservative element in the Diet. especially from those Diet members who had been officials. At the same time, increasing external pressure came from the socialists who had steadily increased the number of seats they held in each parliamentary election after 1949, and were watching for the opportunity to gain power by taking advantage of the internal conflicts among the conservatives. The socialists reunited in October 1955. This stimulated the conservatives into forming a huge, diffuse party in November of that year, with the Big FourHatoyama, Ogata, Miki and Ono as the acting board of directors. With the emergence of a two-party system, there was a perceptible change in the character of the conservative control in the post-Occupation period.