Obsessive-compulsive Symptoms Research Articles

Psychometric evaluation of the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale in pregnant women.

Although many women experience obsessive-compulsive symptoms during the perinatal period, the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (YBOCS) has not yet been psychometrically evaluated in this population. This study examined the internal consistency, convergent and divergent validity, and factor structure of the YBOCS among pregnant women. 256 Women who were 20 to 24 weeks pregnant completed the clinician-administered YBOCS and Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) along with a series of self-report questionnaires including the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), Perinatal Anxiety Screening Scale (PASS) and Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R). Internal consistency of the YBOCS was excellent, and there were strong inter-scale correlations between the YBOCS Total Score, YBOCS Obsessions and Compulsions Severity Scales. The YBOCS demonstrated good known-groups validity differentiating women with and without OCD. Convergent validity with the OCI-R was demonstrated while relations with divergent validity were more mixed. The YBOCS possesses strong psychometric properties in pregnant women.

Characterizing autogenous and reactive obsessions using theta and beta oscillations under inhibitory demands.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a heterogenous mental health condition that causes significant impairment and is often associated with poor treatment outcomes. The aim of the current study was to examine the association between electroencephalographic (EEG) oscillatory power during inhibitory task performance and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS). OCS was assessed using the well-established the Autogenous-Reactive Obsession (AO-RO) model as the main framework to address its heterogeneous clinical manifestations. The severity of AO and RO, as primary outcome measures, was indexed using the Revised Obsessive Intrusion Inventory (ROII). Cognitive- and behavioral inhibition (CI; BI) tasks were administered while EEG data were recorded from an analogue sample of 63 undergraduate students with OCS assessed along a dimensional spectrum. Oscillatory power was computed from frontal-central electrodes Fz and Cz for theta and beta frequency bands, using event-related spectral perturbations (ERSPs), which were entered into two hierarchical linear regression models to predict the severity of AO and RO, respectively, while controlling for covariates (i.e., sex, age, ethnicity, anxiety, depression, worry, and behavioral task performance). Theta power during CI (Theta-CI) was the only significant EEG predictor of AO severity, whereas beta power during BI (Beta-BI) was the only significant EEG predictor of RO severity. These results suggest that AO severity is primarily associated with an overactive neural correlate of cognitive control, whereas RO severity is primarily associated with an overactive neural correlate of behavioral cancellation. These results agree with previous literature suggesting overactive band power representing the dysfunction within OCD. Theta-CI and Beta-BI may serve as potential biomarkers differentially associated with AO and RO among undiagnosed individuals displaying varying levels of OCS, which warrants further investigation.

Avoidance of negative emotional contrasts as a diagnostic feature of OCD: A receiver-operator characteristic curve analysis of the contrast avoidance questionnaires

BackgroundModels focusing on transdiagnostic mechanisms, such as repetitive negative thinking, may be of additive value to existing conceptualizations of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). One such model is the Contrast Avoidance Model (CAM), which posits that individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) are sensitive to sharp increases in emotions, and use worry to maintain heightened states of negative arousal to avoid these emotional shifts. The current study used receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analyses to examine the predictive utility of two contrast avoidance questionnaires in detecting probable OCD. MethodsUndergraduate students with probable OCD (N = 431) and a non-OCD group (N = 433) completed measures of contrast avoidance (CAQ-GE and CAQW) and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. ResultsResults showed significant differences in total CAQ-GE and CAQ-W scores between the probable OCD group and the non-OCD group. Area under the curve values demonstrated excellent accuracy in predicting probable OCD on the CAQ-GE and CAQW, (0.87 and 0.88, respectively). Correlation analyses revealed that certain OC symptom dimensions (e.g., Unacceptable Thoughts; Responsibility for Harm) were more closely associated with the CAQ-GE and the CAQ-W relative to other symptom dimensions. LimitationsThe study had a cross-sectional design and relied on an undergraduate sample. ConclusionIdentifying shared mechanisms across OCD and its comorbidities is an important and novel approach to understanding the etiology and maintenance of symptoms.

Understanding Maladaptive Daydreaming From the Attachment Framework: The Intertwining Roles Of Parental Care, Unresolved Attachment, Depression/Anxiety And Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

Understanding Maladaptive Daydreaming From the Attachment Framework: The Intertwining Roles Of Parental Care, Unresolved Attachment, Depression/Anxiety And Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

Commentary on "Consumed by Creed".

"Consumed by Creed" is a research article that suggests a link between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and support for political violence. Analyzing the article and the data set provided by the authors, we found errors in their methodology and procedures, accompanied by a high degree of researcher freedom that could have led to the finding of false-positive results. Given the important political and psychological implications of the claimed findings and the weakness of the evidence presented, we recommend substantial caution in interpreting the results reported in the article, and we urge researchers to drastically improve current research practices in the field of radicalization to ensure that policy decisions are based on valid and reliable evidence.

Phase Angle Between Dim Light Melatonin Onset and Sleep Timing During Residential Treatment Prospectively Predicts Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

Phase Angle Between Dim Light Melatonin Onset and Sleep Timing During Residential Treatment Prospectively Predicts Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms

Clinical Insights into PTSD and OCD Comorbidity

This paper examines the complex relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD), highlighting how trauma can not only exacerbate, but also trigger the onset of obsessive-compulsive symptoms, contributing to treatment resistance. Both disorders share overlapping features such as intrusive thoughts, avoidance behaviors, and abnormalities in brain regions responsible for emotional regulation, including hyperactivity in the amygdala and hypoactivity in the prefrontal cortex. Trauma-induced OCD, which often emerges after trauma, tends to be more resistant to standard treatments like exposure and response prevention (ERP) due to the heightened emotional distress linked to trauma memories. This paper also discusses the neurobiological underpinnings of these comorbid conditions, presenting evidence of disrupted cortico-striatal- thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits, which affect fear processing and cognitive control. By incorporating trauma- focused interventions, such as trauma-sensitive ERP, prolonged exposure therapy (PE), and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT), clinicians can more effectively address the emotional dysregulation that drives and exacerbates OCD symptoms. A case study of a treatment-resistant OCD patient with comorbid PTSD underscores the need for tailored, multidimensional approaches to improve clinical outcomes. The findings stress the importance of early trauma identification and integrating cognitive-behavioral strategies with trauma-informed care to promote lasting recovery in patients with these dual diagnoses.

Safety and Efficacy of Ecopipam in Patients with Tourette Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Ecopipam is a selective antagonist of the dopamine D1 receptor, and its efficacy and safety have recently been explored in several clinical trials involving patients with Tourette syndrome (TS). The objectives of this systematic review were to determine the pooled estimate for efficacy [in terms of reduction in tic Yale Global Tic Severity Scale (YGTSS) scores] and safety of oral ecopipam in subjects with TS. All clinical trials that explored the efficacy and/or safety of ecopipam in patients with TS were included to determine the pooled estimate for change in YGTSS, Clinical Global Impression (CGI)-TS, and the severity of comorbid attention-deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD), obsessive compulsion disorder (OCD), and depressive symptoms, as well as the nature and frequency of adverse effects. Case-series, retrospective studies, and case reports were excluded. Databases, such as PUBMED, EMBASE, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and SCOPUS were searched to identify these trials using suitable combination of MESH terms/keywords on 15 June 2024. ROB 2.0 and ROBINS-I tool were used to assess the risk of bias in included randomized-controlled trials (RCTs) and non-randomized intervention studies, respectively, and the GRADE system to determine the certainty of the collated evidence. A total of 96 records were identified in the database search and 31 records were screened after removing duplicates. After excluding 23 irrelevant records, the full-text review included 8 records. Finally, six publications from three completed clinical trials (two RCTs, with one having an open-label extension) and one ongoing clinical trial were included. A total of 251 participants were included. The pooled estimate for mean change in YGTSS-TTS from baseline to the completion of the randomization period was statistically better in the ecopipam group compared with the placebo group [mean difference: - 3.0, 95% (confidence interval (CI) - 4.2 to - 1.9, I2 = 55%, p < 0.0001]. The ecopipam group also fared statistically better in terms of YGTSS-motor tic score, phonic tic score, as well as CGI-TS-S (p < 0.0001). Changes in depressive and obsessive-compulsive symptoms were comparable in both groups, as well as the incidence of adverse effects. Ecopipam is effective in reducing theseverity of tics in subjects with TS and has agood safety profile. However, only alimited number of studies were included in thereview, with some having small sample sizes and short duration of follow-up.

Examining Mental Health Changes Before and After Rhinoplasty: An Analytical Study.

This study aimed to explore the mental health status of individuals seeking rhinoplasty before and 3 months after surgery. This study was conducted in 2022 at Velayat Hospital, involving patients aged 18-60 who were seeking rhinoplasty, selected using convenience sampling method. Exclusion criteria included prior nasal surgery and severe psychiatric disorders without clearance from a psychiatrist. The Symptom Check List-90-Revised questionnaire was employed to assess psychological disorders across 9 dimensions. Sixty patients were examined, consisting of 14 men and 46 women, with an average age of 31 years. A substantial 83.3% of participants sought rhinoplasty solely for cosmetic reasons, whereas 16.7% cited both cosmetic and breathing issues as motivations. Initially, 59 patients had scores indicating "good" mental health, with one showing "moderate" mental health. Three months after the surgery, all patients scored within "good" mental health. The findings revealed significant improvements in various dimensions of mental health, including depression, anxiety, and obsessive compulsive symptoms, with the exception of paranoid ideation. All three primary indicators of mental health demonstrated significant decrease post-surgery. The study highlights the positive impact of rhinoplasty on the mental health of patients, particularly among women, individuals over 20, and non-smokers. Notable improvements were observed across various mental health dimensions, with significant enhancements reported three months post-surgery. However, the findings underscore the need for careful consideration of psychological conditions when selecting candidates for surgery. Limitations, including a small male sample and lack of a control group, suggest further research is necessary.

Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms in the General Population Under Stressful Conditions: Lessons Learned from the COVID-19 Pandemic.

Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on mental health in the general population. The fear, stress, and uncertainty surrounding that traumatic period could have contributed to the aggravation or possible new onset of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Methods: The COvid Mental hEalth Trial (COMET) is a nationwide project organized by the University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", designed as an observational investigation that aimed to gather data from a representative sample of the Italian general population. The current study is a report from the main project and it focuses on obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms. Results: A total sample of N = 20,720 took part in the survey. N = 2332 individuals had a total Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R) score greater than or equal to 21 (11.3% of the entire sample), indicating the presence of clinically relevant obsessive-compulsive symptoms. By excluding patients with a history of previous mental illnesses, we still obtained a high number of individuals with an OCI-R score greater than or equal to 21 (N = 2024), representing 10.3% of the overall sample, possibly indicating a new incidence of OC symptoms during the pandemic. Discussion: Our study highlights a substantial new incidence of obsessive-compulsive symptoms in the general public. Risk factors or red flags such as being male, being of working age, living in a highly stressful environment such as one of the Italian regions most affected and severely hit by the pandemic, having higher levels of loneliness, and using substances to cope with stress, should be paid particular attention in order to prevent the development of OC symptoms during a critical and traumatic event such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Self-other distinction and schizotypy: Affect sharing and alexithymia in the prediction of socially anxious and avoidant traits.

Social cognition may play a central role in many schizotypal personality characteristics, such as suspiciousness, constricted affect, social anxiety, and lack of close relationships. This study investigated how factors relevant to self-other distinction (i.e., emotion contagion and personal distress) were related to social schizotypal personality traits, in two experiments involving healthy young adults. Subclinical depressive symptoms, alexithymia, and obsessive-compulsive traits, were explored as potential mediators of the relationship between personal distress and schizotypy. Experiment 1 showed that high sadness contagion predicted personal distress, which in turn predicted cognitive disorganization. This relationship was mediated by low mood. Experiment 2 revealed that high personal distress predicted excessive social anxiety and ideas of reference, as well as obsessive-compulsive tendencies. Personal distress also predicted difficulty identifying feelings, an aspect of alexithymia that could develop as a result of difficulties in disentangling emotional experiences related to the self and others. However, it was difficulty describing feelings that predicted social anhedonia, constricted affect, and no close friends. While personal distress was a positive predictor of empathic concern, social anhedonia was a negative predictor. These findings suggest that personal distress and difficulty identifying feelings predict more anxious and disorganized aspects of schizotypy, as well as subclinical depressive and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Future research should investigate whether this profile, which may be more closely related to low self-other distinction, contrasts with a more socially avoidant presentation, characterized by negative schizotypal traits such as social anhedonia and lower empathy. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Decision-making using the Iowa gambling test in unaffected first-degree relatives of obsessive-compulsive disorder: Comparison with healthy controls and patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Decision-making has been suggested as an endophenotype candidate for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, few studies have examined whether decision-making under ambiguity is an endophenotype of OCD. This study aimed to investigate decision-making under ambiguity, as assessed by the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT), in patients with OCD and unaffected first-degree relatives (UFDR). Forty-seven non-medicated, non-co-morbid patients with OCD, 30 UFDR, and 47 healthy controls (HC) were compared in terms of decision-making using the IGT. The correlation between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and IGT performance was also investigated. Patients with OCD and UFDR performed worse than HC on the IGT. No correlation was found between obsessive-compulsive symptoms and IGT performance. A deficit in decision-making under ambiguity may be a trait and an endophenotype candidate for OCD.

A network analysis approach to understand the relationship between online problematic gaming, defense mechanisms, and psychopathological symptoms

ABSTRACT Problematic gaming (PG) refers to a dysfunctional pattern of online gaming behaviour that negatively affects individual functioning. The present study adopted a network analysis approach to investigate the patterns of reciprocal associations between PG, defense mechanisms, and psychopathological symptoms. Participants were 1,036 adult Italian online video game players (Mage = 29.94, SD = 8.85; females = 388) who completed self-report questionnaires. We used a regularised partial correlation network analysis (EBICglasso) to investigate the network structure of the relationships among PG, defense mechanisms, and psychopathological symptoms. Centrality measures were computed. The highly influential nodes in the network concerned both psychological symptoms (anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms) and defense mechanisms (projection and autistic fantasy). Furthermore, the escapism feature of PG was detected as a prominent bridge symptom in the network. Our findings suggest that negative affect and immature defense mechanisms might play a pivotal role in PG, and that withdrawal in the virtual world may also exacerbate psychological symptoms. Therefore, better understanding the role of escapism and related immature defenses in PG might have important implications for theory and clinical practice.

Prevalence and Clinical Correlates of Suicidal Ideation and Attempts in Individuals at Clinical High Risk for Psychosis.

Individuals with psychosis symptoms are at high risk for suicidal ideation and attempts. The prevalence and correlates of suicidal ideation and attempts in clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR-P) have yet to be clarified. This study reports on the prevalence and clinical correlates of suicidal ideation and attempts in a clinical CHR-P sample. Participants (n = 135) included CHR-P clients at a CHR-P community specialty clinic, who participated in a clinical assessment between 2017 and 2022. Assessments measured attenuated psychosis symptoms, suicidal ideation and attempts, clinical covariates, and functioning. Frequency analyses assessed the prevalence of lifetime suicidal ideation and attempts and t-test and Chi-square identified clinical correlates. Logistic regression assessed the relationship between significant clinical correlates and lifetime suicide attempts. Sixty-five percent of participants at CHR-P endorsed lifetime suicidal ideation, while 22.2% reported at least one lifetime attempt. Correlates for lifetime suicidal ideation included self-reported gender expansive identity, hopelessness, depression, trauma, obsessive compulsive symptoms, insight: reflectiveness, trauma diagnoses, mood disorder diagnoses, and perceptual abnormalities/hallucinations. Significant correlates for lifetime suicide attempts included self-reported hopelessness, depression, trauma diagnosis and mood disorder diagnosis. CHR-P clients are at a higher risk for suicidal ideation and attempts compared to the general population. Correlates of suicidal ideation and attempts may be diagnostically heterogeneous and therefore interventions should be tailored to specific clinical needs. Clients with trauma-disorder diagnoses may be at highest risk for suicidal ideation and attempts. Continued intervention and longitudinal research is needed to clarify causal risk factors and establish evidence-based treatments for suicidal ideation and attempts in CHR-P.

Effectiveness of an Internet-Based Self-Help Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Program on Medical Students' Mental Well-Being: Follow-Up Randomized Controlled Trial.

Psychological distress is a growing problem among medical students worldwide. This highlights the need for psychological interventions to focus on mental health and improve well-being in this population. This study developed an internet-based, self-help, acceptance and commitment therapy program (iACT 2.0), aiming to examine its effectiveness in reducing depression, anxiety, stress, psychological inflexibility (PI), and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCSs) among medical students. A total of 520 Chinese postgraduate medical students were randomly assigned to either an iACT 2.0 intervention group (n=260; six online lessons, once every 5 days) or a control condition (n=260; without intervention). Participants completed questionnaires including the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scale, the revised Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory, and the Multidimensional Psychological Flexibility Inventory at the preintervention (T1), postintervention (T2), and 1-month follow-up time points (T3). No therapist support was provided during the 1-month iACT 2.0 intervention period. Data were collected via an online platform and analyzed using repeated-measures ANOVA. Participants in the intervention group demonstrated a significant decrease in depression, anxiety, stress, PI, and OCSs compared to the control group after the intervention (F=22.9-672.04, all P<.001). Specifically, the intervention group showed significant reductions in all measured outcomes from the preintervention to postintervention time point and at the 1-month follow-up (all P<.001). In contrast, no significant changes were observed in the control group over the same period (all P>.05). The groups did not differ significantly at baseline (all P>.05). Significant differences were noted at both the postintervention and follow-up time points (all P<.001). This study demonstrated that the newly developed iACT 2.0 was effective in reducing depression, anxiety, stress, PI, and OCSs. Notably, the positive effects of the intervention persisted at the 1-month follow-up. This program can offer a useful addition to existing mental illness treatment and lead to improvements in clinical and psychotherapy planning while simultaneously reducing the burden on traditional counseling and services. Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR2300070725; https://tinyurl.com/2h75wx8n.

Assessment of Public Stigma, Mental Health Literacy, and Help-Seeking Intentions Based on Different Dimensions of Obsessive-Compulsive Content: A Study of the Spanish Mental Health-Naïve Population.

Obsessive-compulsive (OC) disorder is a debilitating disorder with a high delay in help-seeking that could be associated with two barriers that may differ between OC content dimensions: public stigma and mental health literacy. We aim to describe and analyze the differences among OC content dimensions in public stigma, social distance desire, mental health literacy, and help-seeking intention in a sample of the mental health-naïve population. A total of 487 participants from the Spanish community with no previous knowledge of or experience with OCD were randomly allocated one of six vignettes describing a person with OC symptoms of one out of six contents (i.e., aggression/harm; sexual; religious/blasphemous/immoral; contamination/washing; doubts/checking; or superstition/symmetry/order). After reading the vignette, participants completed the following questionnaires associated with their vignette: Attribution Questionnaire, General Help-Seeking Questionnaire, Social Distance Scale, and Mental Health Literacy Questionnaire. There were significant differences among OC content dimensions on the variables of interest. Aggression/harm OC content was associated with the highest public stigma and discriminating desire, and together with the religious/blasphemous/immoral OC contents were associated with the highest social distance desire. Although no differences appear between contents on intention to seek for formal treatment, participants would request less informal support for their sexual OC content than for the other categories. Contamination, doubts/checking, and superstition/symmetry/order OC contents were more frequently identified as OCD, although only around 50% or less of the sample identified the sexual, superstition/symmetry/order, doubts/checking, and religious/blasphemous/immoral OC contents as a mental health problem. Interventions to reduce stigma and increase help seeking are necessary and should consider OC heterogeneity.

Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, and Depressive Symptom Presentation and Change Throughout Routine Eating Disorder Treatment.

The present study examined whether patients with binge/purge and restricting anorexia nervosa (AN-BP and AN-R), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), and other specified feeding and eating disorder (OSFED) differ in generalised anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression symptom patterns and overall comorbid symptom severity at admission. We also assessed between-group differences in the patterns of change and overall comorbid symptom severity change from admission to discharge from routine eating disorder (ED) treatment at higher levels of care (HLOC). The initial sample included 3730 adults routinely assessed for GAD, depression, and OCD at admission and discharge from treatment. ED diagnostic groups exhibited somewhat different symptom patterns (e.g., AN-R and ARFID were more prone to GAD and OCD than depression symptoms; BED exhibited the opposite pattern) and overall symptom severity at admission (i.e., AN-BP and OSFED had the highest overall comorbid symptom severity; BED had the lowest). Although the overall symptom improvement was significantly greater in ARFID and BED than in AN-BP, AN-R, and OSFED, ED patients collectively and within each diagnostic group improved significantly in GAD, OCD, and depression symptoms following routine ED treatment at HLOC.

Examination of perception of threat from emotion as mechanisms underlying the relationship between obsessive compulsive symptom dimensions and anxiety symptoms

BackgroundThe present study examined the mediating role of perceived threats from anxiety in the relationships among trait anxiety, state anxiety, and the obsessive–compulsive symptom dimension in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD).MethodsPatients with OCD (N = 170) completed scales assessing trait and state anxiety, OCD dimensions symptom severity, and perceived threat from anxiety with mediation analyses.ResultsPerceived threat from anxiety appears to be a significant mediator between trait anxiety and harm and unacceptable thoughts symptom dimensions; perceived threat from anxiety had minimal power as a mediator in the relationship between trait anxiety and in the contamination or symmetry dimensions. However, there were no significant relationships between state anxiety and harm and mistakes, unacceptable thoughts or symmetry dimensions except for the contamination dimension.ConclusionsThe findings from our study indicate the significance of perceived threats of anxiety as a mediator function between trait anxiety and OCD symptom dimensions, which may be a maintenance factor. Enhancing the recognition of the role of cognitive mechanisms in the association between trait anxiety rather than state anxiety and different obsessive–compulsive symptom dimensions could contribute to the development of dimension-specific interventions.

Association between bullying victimization and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a population-based, genetically informative study.

The extent to which bullying victimization is associated with an increased risk of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has received little empirical attention. This longitudinal, population-based, genetically informative study examined whether self-reported bullying victimization at age 15 was associated with a clinical diagnosis of OCD in the Swedish National Patient Register and with self-reported obsessive-compulsive symptoms (OCS) at ages 18 and 24 in 16,030 twins from the Child and Adolescent Twin Study in Sweden. Using a discordant twin design, including monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins, each twin was compared with their co-twin, allowing a strict control of genetic andenvironmental confounding. At the population level, adjusting for birth year and sex, each standard deviation (SD) increase in bullying victimization was associated with a 32% increase in the odds of an OCD diagnosis (OR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.21-1.44), of 0.13 SD in OCS at age 18 (β, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.11-0.16), and of 0.11 SDin OCS at age 24 (β, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.07-0.16). While associations tended to persist in the within DZ-twin comparison models, the estimates attenuated and were no longer statistically significant in the within MZ-twin comparisons. These results suggest that the association between bullying victimization and OCD/OCS is likely due to genetic confounding and therefore incompatible with a strong causal effect. Other mechanisms, such as evocative gene-environment correlations, are more plausible explanations for the observed associations.

Untangling Depression in Schizophrenia: The Role of Disorganized and Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms and the Duration of Untreated Psychosis.

Background: Schizophrenia is a complex disorder characterized by positive symptoms (e.g., hallucinations), negative symptoms (e.g., social withdrawal), and disorganized symptoms (e.g., thought disorder). Alongside these, cognitive and depressive symptoms often emerge, with depressive symptoms sometimes dominating the clinical picture. Understanding the factors that influence the development of depressive symptoms in schizophrenia could clarify the dynamics between depressive and psychotic symptoms and guide clinical interventions. Methods: A total of 105 patients with schizophrenia (66 women, 39 men) were assessed using several clinical scales: PANSS, BPRS, DOCS, DES, HAM-D, and the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery for cognitive evaluation. Statistical analyses, including correlation and regression, were conducted using SPSS to determine the significance of associations. Results: Disorganized and obsessive-compulsive symptoms were identified as primary factors associated with depressive symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. Conversely, a longer duration of untreated psychosis was linked to a lower severity of depressive symptoms, suggesting that early intervention may alter the depressive symptom trajectory. Conclusions: Here, we suggest a complex interaction between psychotic and depressive symptoms, possibly indicating a biological antagonism. The association of depressive symptoms with disorganized and obsessive-compulsive features may reflect an adaptive psychological response, attempting to stabilize amidst the disintegration of schizophrenia. These insights support a more integrated approach to treatment, addressing both psychotic and depressive symptoms to improve patient outcomes.