Risk Of Obesity Research Articles

Cost-effectiveness of a complex continuum of care intervention targeting women and children: protocol for an economic evaluation of the Bukhali trial in South Africa

IntroductionAs nearly two-thirds of women presenting at their first antenatal visit are either overweight or obese in urban South Africa, the preconception period is an opportunity to optimise health and...

Association between serum vitamin A and body mass index in adolescents from NHANES 1999 to 2006

Vitamin A plays a pivotal role in health, particularly in regulating fat metabolism. Despite its significance, research into the direct relationship between vitamin A levels and obesity, especially among adolescents, is sparse. This study aims to explore this association within the adolescent population in the United States. This cross-sectional study analyzed the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) data from 1999 to 2006, with 8218 participants. The levels of vitamin A in the serum were determined based on utilizing high-performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. The relationship between serum vitamin A concentrations and body mass index (BMI) was evaluated using weighted multiple linear regression models, incorporating subgroup analyses by sex and race/ethnicity to provide nuanced insights. A positive correlation was observed between serum vitamin A levels and BMI, with BMI increasing progressively across vitamin A quartiles (P < 0.001). Using the lowest quartile of serum vitamin A as a reference, the BMI of the highest quartile of serum vitamin A was 1.236 times higher (95% CI 0.888, 1.585). Subgroup analyses revealed that this positive association persisted across different genders and racial/ethnic groups (P < 0.001). Notably, smooth curve fitting and saturation threshold analysis unveiled an inverted U-shaped relationship between serum vitamin A and BMI among female adolescents, non-Hispanic Whites, Mexican Americans, and other races/ethnicities groups. Our study substantiates the association between serum vitamin A levels and the risk of obesity/overweight status in adolescents. The findings suggest the potential serum vitamin A is an early biomarker for identifying obesity risk, although further studies are needed to determine to clarify its role as a contributing factor to obesity. This study contributes to the understanding of nutritional influences on adolescent obesity, highlighting the need for targeted interventions based on serum biomarkers.

DETERMINANTS OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY: A REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF SOCIOECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Childhood obesity is a complex public health issue with significant implications for long-term health outcomes and healthcare costs. This study investigates the determinants of childhood obesity, focusing on socioeconomic and environmental factors. Data were collected from 310 children and their families using a structured questionnaire from Jodhpur City. Socioeconomic variables included parental education level and household income, while environmental factors encompassed access to healthy food options and safe outdoor spaces for physical activity. Multiple regression analysis examined the relationship between these factors and childhood obesity, controlling for potential confounders. Results indicate that parental education level and household income were inversely associated with childhood obesity, suggesting that higher socioeconomic status may protect against obesity risk. Additionally, access to healthy food options in the neighborhood emerged as a significant predictor of childhood obesity, highlighting the importance of environmental factors in shaping dietary behaviors. These findings underscore the need for multifaceted interventions targeting socioeconomic disparities and ecological barriers to promote healthy weight among children. Effective strategies may include improving access to nutritious foods and creating supportive environments for community physical activity. Addressing the determinants of childhood obesity is crucial for mitigating its adverse health effects and reducing the burden on healthcare systems. KEYWORDS: Childhood Obesity, Public Health, Healthy Lifestyle, Socioeconomic Factors, Physical Activity

Vaporized nicotine in utero results in reduced birthweight, increased locomotion, and decreased voluntary exercise, dependent on sex and diet in offspring.

Rationale Clinical research has shown that prenatal exposure to nicotine may result in increased obesity risk later in life. Preclinical research has corroborated this finding, but few studies have investigated inhaled nicotine or the interaction with diet on obesity risk. Objective The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of prenatal nicotine exposure on both direct and indirect obesity measures, with both sex and diet as factors. Methods Pregnant rats were exposed to either vehicle or nicotine vapor (24mg/mL or 59mg/mL) throughout the entire gestational period. Offspring from each treatment group were given either a normal diet or a high fat diet starting at postnatal day 22. Caloric intake, body weight, spontaneous locomotion, sleep/wake activity, and voluntary exercise were measured throughout adolescence. Pregnancy weight gain and pup birthweights were collected to further measure developmental effects of prenatal nicotine exposure. Results Both maternal weight gain during pregnancy and pup weight at birth were decreased with prenatal nicotine exposure. Early adolescent males showed increased spontaneous activity in the open field following prenatal nicotine exposure compared to vehicle counterparts, particularly those given high-fat diet. Additionally, high dose nicotine prenatal treated males ran significantly less distance on the running wheel in late adolescence compared to vehicle counterparts, in the normal diet group only. Conclusion The results presented here show decreased birthweight, hyperactivity, and decreased voluntary exercise in adolescence following prenatal nicotine exposure in dose, sex, and diet dependent manners, which could lead to increased obesity risk in adulthood.

Association between sedentary behavior and dynapenic abdominal obesity among older adults from low- and middle-income countries

BackgroundSedentary behavior, or time spent sitting, may increase risk for dynapenic abdominal obesity (DAO), but there are currently no studies on this topic.AimsTherefore, we investigated the association between sedentary behaviour and DAO in a nationally representative sample of older adults from six low- and middle-income countries.MethodsCross-sectional data from the Study on Global AGEing and Adult Health were analysed. Dynapenia was defined as handgrip strength < 26 kg for men and < 16 kg for women. Abdominal obesity was defined as waist circumference of > 88 cm (> 80 cm for Asian countries) for women and > 102 cm (> 90 cm) for men. DAO was defined as having both dynapenia and abdominal obesity. Self-reported sedentary behavior was categorized as ≥ 8 h/day (high sedentary behaviour) or < 8 h/day. Multivariable multinomial logistic regression was conducted.ResultsData on 20,198 adults aged ≥ 60 years were analyzed [mean (SD) age 69.3 (13.1) years; 54.1% females]. In the overall sample, ≥ 8 h of sedentary behavior per day (vs. <8 h) was significantly associated with 1.52 (95%CI = 1.11–2.07) times higher odds for DAO (vs. no dynapenia and no abdominal obesity), and this was particularly pronounced among males (OR = 2.27; 95%CI = 1.42–3.62). Highly sedentary behavior was not significantly associated with dynapenia alone or abdominal obesity alone.DiscussionHigh sedentary behaviour may increase risk for DAO among older adults.ConclusionsInterventions to reduce sedentary behaviour may also lead to reduction of DAO and its adverse health outcomes, especially among males, pending future longitudinal research.

Association between psychological resilience and body mass index in a community-based population: A cross-sectional study.

While earlier studies have focused on the relationship between stress and obesity, there was a gap in understanding the potential impact of positive psychological factors, such as resilience, on obesity. By investigating the role of psychological resilience with obesity, this study aimed to address this gap and tackle obesity through a positive psychological framework. Participants consisted of 2445 community residents from Shenzhen, China, with a mean age of 41.09±13.72years, comprising 846 males and 1599 females. Psychological resilience was measured using the Brief Resilience Scale; gender, age, marital status, education level, smoking status, alcohol consumption, frequency of physical exercise, and perceived stress were considered potential confounding factors. The relationship between psychological resilience and body mass index (BMI) was examined through multiple linear regression and logistic regression analyses. The participants had an average psychological resilience score of 3.46 (standard deviation [SD]=0.62) and an average BMI of 22.59 (SD=3.35), with 104 individuals (4.3%) identified with obesity. In the fully adjusted multiple linear regression model, a higher psychological resilience score was associated with a higher BMI (β=0.507, 95% CI:0.283, 0.731). In the logistic regression model, higher psychological resilience scores were linked to increased obesity risk, with a more significant association observed among males (odds ratio [OR]=2.169, 95% CI:1.155, 4.073), while psychological resilience acted as a protective factor against underweight among females (OR=0.528, 95% CI:0.376, 0.816). The study demonstrated a significant link between higher psychological resilience and elevated BMI, emphasizing the complex relationship between psychological fortitude and weight management. Interventions targeting socioeconomic status, education, lifestyle habits, and physiological well-being might offer a promising strategy for enhancing psychological resilience and promoting healthier weight. Emphasizing self-efficacy and coping skills at the individual level could contribute to balanced weight and comprehensive health outcomes, addressing the global challenge of obesity.

The milk study protocol: A longitudinal, prospective cohort study of the relationship between human milk metabolic hormone concentration, maternal body composition, and early growth and satiety development in Samoan infants aged 1-4 months.

Current research suggests that energy transfer through human milk influences infant nutritional development and initiates metabolic programming, influencing eating patterns into adulthood. To date, this research has predominantly been conducted among women in high income settings and/or among undernourished women. We will investigate the relationship between maternal body composition, metabolic hormones in human milk, and infant satiety to explore mechanisms of developmental satiety programming and implications for early infant growth and body composition in Samoans; a population at high risk and prevalence for overweight and obesity. Our aims are (1) to examine how maternal body composition influences metabolic hormone transfer from mother to infant through human milk, and (2) to examine the influences of maternal metabolic hormone transfer and infant feeding patterns on early infant growth and satiety. We will examine temporal changes in hormone transfers to infants through human milk in a prospective longitudinal cohort of n = 80 Samoan mother-infant dyads. Data will be collected at three time points (1, 3, & 4 months postpartum). At each study visit we will collect human milk and fingerpick blood samples from breastfeeding mother-infant dyads to measure the hormones leptin, ghrelin, and adiponectin. Additionally, we will obtain body composition measurements from the dyad, observe breastfeeding behavior, conduct semi-structured interviews, and use questionnaires to document infant hunger and feeding cues and satiety responsiveness. Descriptive statistics, univariate and multivariate analyses will be conducted to address each aim. This research is designed to advance our understanding of variation in the developmental programming of satiety and implications for early infant growth and body composition. The use of a prospective longitudinal cohort alongside data collection that utilizes a mixed methods approach will allow us to capture a more accurate representation on both biological and cultural variables at play in a population at high risk of overweight and obesity.

Adverse Skeletal Muscle Adaptations in Individuals Born Preterm—A Comprehensive Review

Infants born preterm face an increased risk of deleterious effects on lung and brain health that can significantly alter long-term function and quality of life and even lead to death. Moreover, preterm birth is also associated with a heightened risk of diabetes and obesity later in life, leading to an increased risk of all-cause mortality in young adults born prematurely. While these preterm-birth-related conditions have been well characterized, less is known about the long-term effects of preterm birth on skeletal muscle health and, specifically, an individual’s skeletal muscle hypertrophic potential later in life. In this review, we discuss how a confluence of potentially interrelated and self-perpetuating elements associated with preterm birth might converge on anabolic and catabolic pathways to ultimately blunt skeletal muscle hypertrophy, identifying critical areas for future research.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Obesity, Metabolic Parameters and Clinical Values in the South Korean Adult Population

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on obesity, metabolic parameters, and clinical values in the South Korean population. Data from the seventh and eighth National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys were analyzed, comprising 3560 participants in 2018 (pre-COVID-19) and 3309 participants in 2021 (post-COVID-19). The study focused on adults aged 19 years and older who were overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2). The results showed a significant increase in waist circumference (approximately 2 cm), BMI (approximately 0.11 kg/m2), systolic blood pressure, fasting blood sugar (1.76 mg/dL higher), and glycated hemoglobin (0.14% higher) in the post-COVID-19 group compared to the pre-COVID-19 group. Additionally, the prevalence of hypercholesterolemia increased by 4% after the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings suggest an increased risk of obesity, abdominal obesity, and metabolic disorders, such as blood sugar disorders, in the post-COVID-19 period. Urine analysis revealed abnormal findings, including occult blood, urobilinogen, hematuria, proteinuria, ketone urea, glycosuria, and bacteriuria. The study highlights the negative impact of lifestyle changes, such as reduced physical activity and social gatherings, on physical vital signs and clinical values during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Association of leptin–melanocortin gene polymorphisms with the risk of obesity in northwest Indian population

BackgroundObesity, a multifaceted endocrine issue, is adversely affecting all age groups and is posing a significant public health challenge. The genetic polymorphisms of the melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R) and leptin (LEP) genes likely contribute to the development of obesity. The present study aimed to explore the effects of MC4R and LEP gene polymorphisms on obesity among the northwest Indian population.MethodsThe present study was conducted among 333 obese cases and 338 non-obese controls (aged 18–50 years). All subjects underwent measurements for anthropometric, physiometric, as well as biochemical parameters. Genotyping for MC4R and LEP gene variants was performed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method. However, 10% of the samples for each variant were confirmed using the Sanger sequencing method.ResultsThe polymorphisms of leptin–melanocortin pathway genes (MC4R-LEP) were found to be significantly associated with various obesity-related parameters like waist circumference: p = 0.017, waist-to-height ratio: p = 0.009, total cholesterol: p = 0.0001 and triglycerides: p = 0.0001. Both the LEP gene variants rs2167270 and rs7799039 conferred 2.4- and 2.2-fold risk toward obesity under the recessive genetic model [OR (95% CI) 2.42 (1.44–4.07), p = 0.001; OR (95% CI) 2.26 (1.41–3.60), p = 0.0001, respectively]. All four polymorphisms of the MC4R and LEP genes demonstrated a strong interaction of 82.1% with the lifestyle factor (p = 0.001). The haplotype combinations A–A for rs571312 and rs12970134 conferred twofold risk [OR (95% CI) 2.61 (1.10–6.20), p = 0.028]. However, the combination A–G for rs2167270 and rs7799039 predicted sixfold risk [OR (95% CI) 6.02 (3.39–10.68), p = 0.0001] toward the obesity development in this population.ConclusionOur study revealed a connection between MC4R (rs571312, rs12970134) and LEP (rs2167270, rs7799039) gene variants with obesity, highlighting their prominent role in assessing the risk of obesity among the northwest Indian population.

The neighborhood food environment modifies the association between infant feeding and childhood obesity

BackgroundThe Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) issues infant formula to infants who are not fully breastfed, and prior research found elevated obesity risk among children receiving lactose-reduced infant formula with corn syrup solids (CSSF) issued by WIC. This study was conducted to evaluate associations between a broader set of specialty infant formulas issued by WIC and child obesity risk, whether neighborhood context (e.g. neighborhood food environment) modifies associations, and whether racial/ethnic disparities in obesity are partly explained by infant formula exposure and neighborhood context.MethodsWIC administrative data, collected from 2013–2020 on issued amount (categorical: fully formula fed, mostly formula fed, mostly breastfed, fully breastfed) and type of infant formula (standard cow’s milk formula, and three specialty formulas: any CSSF, any soy-based formula, and any cow's milk-based formula with added rice starch) and obesity at ages 2–4 years (defined as a Body Mass Index z-score ≥ 95th percentile according to World Health Organization growth standard) were used to construct a cohort (n = 59,132). Associations of infant formula exposures and race/ethnicity with obesity risk were assessed in Poisson regression models, and modification of infant feeding associations with obesity by neighborhood context was assessed with interaction terms.ResultsAny infant formula exposure was associated with significantly higher obesity risk relative to fully breastfeeding. Receipt of a CSSF was associated with 5% higher obesity risk relative to the standard and other specialty infant formulas (risk ratio 1.05, 95% confidence interval 1.02, 1.08) independent of breastfeeding duration and receipt of other specialty infant formulas. The association between CSSF and obesity risk was stronger in neighborhoods with healthier food environments (10% higher risk) compared to less healthy food environments (null). Racial/ethnic disparities in obesity risk were robust to adjustment for infant formula exposure and neighborhood environment.ConclusionsAmong specialty infant formulas issued by WIC, only CSSFs were associated with elevated obesity risk, and this association was stronger in healthier food environments. Future research is needed to isolate the mechanism underlying this association.

Association between Mothers' Working Hours and Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents: Data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2016-2020.

Prevention and management of metabolic syndrome (MetS) during childhood are crucial. Recently, obesity among children and adolescents has increased with an increase in mothers' working hours. The present study was conducted to determine the relationship between mothers' working hours and MetS in their children. Data from the 2016-2020 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were used, and 2,598 children and adolescents aged 10-18 years were included. Logistic regression analysis was conducted to confirm the association between MetS and mothers' working hours for each risk factor. Linear regression analysis was conducted to confirm the association between mothers' working hours and the number of risk factors for MetS. Abdominal obesity in children was higher when the mothers' working hours were 53 hours or more (odds ratio [OR], 2.267; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.21-4.25). In the trend analysis, the OR of children's abdominal obesity increased significantly as mothers' working hours increased (P-value <0.05). Additionally, sex-stratified analysis revealed a significant trend between maternal work hours and the presence of MetS in female children (P=0.016). The adjusted OR of the presence of MetS in female children with mothers working 53 hours or more weekly was 6.065 (95% CI, 1.954-18.822). Mothers' working hours were highly correlated with the risk of abdominal obesity in their children. The OR of the presence of MetS significantly increased in female children with mothers having longer working hours compared with those with stay-at-home mothers.

Genetic variations in ACE2 gene associated with metabolic syndrome in southern China: a case–control study

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is closely related to cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, and genetic predisposition is one of the main triggers for its development. To identify the susceptibility genes for MetS, we investigated the relationship between angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and MetS in southern China. In total, 339 MetS patients and 398 non-MetS hospitalized patients were recruited. Four ACE2 polymorphisms (rs2074192, rs2106809, rs879922, and rs4646155) were genotyped using the polymerase chain reaction-ligase detection method and tested for their potential association with MetS and its related components. ACE2 rs2074192 and rs2106809 minor alleles conferred 2.485-fold and 3.313-fold greater risks of MetS in women. ACE2 rs2074192 and rs2106809 variants were risk factors for obesity, diabetes, and low–high-density lipoprotein cholesterolemia. However, in men, the ACE2 rs2074192 minor allele was associated with an approximately 0.525-fold reduction in MetS prevalence. Further comparing the components of MetS, ACE2 rs2074192 and rs2106809 variants reduced the risk of obesity and high triglyceride levels. In conclusion, ACE2 rs2074192 and rs2106809 SNPs were independently associated with MetS in a southern Chinese population and showed gender heterogeneity, which can be partially explained by obesity. Thus, these SNPs may be utilized as predictive biomarkers and molecular targets for MetS. A limitation of this study is that environmental and lifestyle differences, as well as genetic heterogeneity among different populations, were not considered in the analysis.

The risk of obesity and metabolic complications in hyperandrogenic physically inactive young women with PCOS

The risk of obesity and metabolic complications in hyperandrogenic physically inactive young women with PCOS

Exploring Maternal Diet-Epigenetic-Gut Microbiome Crosstalk as an Intervention Strategy to Counter Early Obesity Programming

Alterations in a mother’s metabolism and endocrine system, due to unbalanced nutrition, may increase the risk of both metabolic and non-metabolic disorders in the offspring’s childhood and adulthood. The risk of obesity in the offspring can be determined by the interplay between maternal nutrition and lifestyle, intrauterine environment, epigenetic modifications, and early postnatal factors. Several studies have indicated that the fetal bowel begins to colonize before birth and that, during birth and nursing, the gut microbiota continues to change. The mother’s gut microbiota is primarily transferred to the fetus through maternal nutrition and the environment. In this way, it is able to impact the establishment of the early fetal and neonatal microbiome, resulting in epigenetic signatures that can possibly predispose the offspring to the development of obesity in later life. However, antioxidants and exercise in the mother have been shown to improve the offspring’s metabolism, with improvements in leptin, triglycerides, adiponectin, and insulin resistance, as well as in the fetal birth weight through epigenetic mechanisms. Therefore, in this extensive literature review, we aimed to investigate the relationship between maternal diet, epigenetics, and gut microbiota in order to expand on current knowledge and identify novel potential preventative strategies for lowering the risk of obesity in children and adults.

Smaller subcortical volume relates to greater weight gain in girls with initially healthy weight.

Among 3614 youth who were 9 to 12 years old and initially did not have overweight or obesity (12% [n = 385] developed overweight or obesity), we examined the natural progression of weight gain and brain structure development during a 2-year period with a high risk for obesity (e.g., pre- and early adolescence) to determine the following: 1) whether variation in maturational trajectories of the brain regions contributes to weight gain; and/or 2) whether weight gain contributes to altered brain development. Data were gathered from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. Linear mixed-effects regression models controlled for puberty, caregiver education, handedness, and intracranial volume (random effects: magnetic resonance scanner [MRI] scanner and participant). Because pubertal development occurs earlier in girls, analyses were stratified by sex. For girls, but not boys, independent of puberty, greater increases in BMI were driven by smaller volumes over time in the bilateral accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, and thalamus, right caudate and ventral diencephalon, and left pallidum (all p < 0.05). The results suggest a potential phenotype for identifying obesity risk because underlying differences among regions involved in food intake were related to greater weight gain in girls, but not in boys. Importantly, 2 years of weight gain may not be sufficient to alter brain development, highlighting early puberty as a critical time to prevent negative neurological outcomes.

The causal associations between interoception, self-regulation, non-purposeful eating behaviors, and weight status in college women: a longitudinal cross-lagged model analysis

Aims Excessive weight gain has led to increased obesity and mortality risk among college students. Issues with maintaining a healthy weight may be attributed to poor internal awareness and unhealthy eating behaviors. The study’s purpose was to determine the longitudinal effects among interoception, self-regulation, nonpurposeful eating behaviors, and weight status (BMI) among college women. Methods Data from 103 females were collected via Qualtrics over 3 timepoints (T1, T2, T3) during an academic semester. Repeated measures ANOVA and cross-lagged model analyses were used. Significant changes were found in interoceptive responsiveness, external, and uncontrolled eating throughout 3 timepoints. Results Longitudinally, significant causal effects were found among the study measures. Among all models, higher interoceptive responsiveness (T1) predicted increased self-regulation (T2). Higher non-purposeful eating behaviors (T1) predicted reduced self-regulation (T2). Higher BMI (T1) predicted reduced non-purposeful eating behaviors (T2), however higher BMI (T2) predicted increased non-purposeful eating (T3) and reduced interoceptive responsiveness (T3). Significant causal effects were found within each non-purposeful eating behavior models. Conclusion Overall, the research study provided foundational evidence of the importance of self-regulatory skills to help prevent unhealthy eating behaviors and increased weight status in college women. Future interventions educating college women to become more internally aware and better self-regulate are needed.

Role of Sedentary Behavior as a Risk Factor for Hypertension and Obesity

Previous studies have shown that sedentary activity is closely related to an increased risk of hypertension and obesity. However, to understand the relationship between sedentary activity, hypertension, and obesity more deeply, this study involves further analysis. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between sedentary activity and the risk of hypertension and obesity. This research is a quantitative study using an observational design, through a prospective cohort approach. Sedentary activity was measured using the Adolescent Sedentary Activity Questionnaire (ASAQ). The correlation between sedentary activity and the risk of hypertension and obesity was analyzed using the Spearman Rank correlation method. Sedentary activity becomes a risk factor for hypertension and obesity with a moderate correlation level (r=0.416). High levels of sedentary activity significantly increase the risk of hypertension. This study confirms the significant relationship between sedentary activity and the risk of hypertension and obesity. High levels of sedentary activity increase the risk of hypertension significantly. Therefore, it is recommended to encourage an active lifestyle and reduce sedentary activity to prevent hypertension and obesity.

The microbiome: a link between obesity and breast cancer risk

Globally, breast cancer is the leading cause of cancer incidence and mortality among all female cancers. Hereditary factors only account for 5-10% of breast cancers, highlighting the importance of non-hereditary factors, such as obesity. The increasing prevalence of obesity underscores the need to understand its contribution to breast cancer risk. Multiple mechanisms may mediate pro-carcinogenic effects of obesity, including altered adipokine levels, local and systemic inflammation, disruption of insulin and insulin-like growth factor signaling, increased estrogen levels, and alterations of the microbiome. In this review, we focus on the link between gut microbiome alterations and breast cancer risk in the context of obesity. First, we discuss how obesity influences the gut microbiome. Next, we describe the effect of such microbiome alterations on breast carcinogenesis, highlighting underlying molecular mechanisms. Finally, we review preclinical data on the interactions between host and bacteria, current challenges to study the obesity-microbiome connection, and future perspectives in this field.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone and obesity: From fetal life to adulthood.

Obesity is among the most common chronic disorders, worldwide. It is a complex disease that reflects the interactions between environmental influences, multiple genetic allelic variants, and behavioral factors. Recent developments have also shown that biological conditions in utero play an important role in the programming of energy homeostasis systems and might have an impact on obesity and metabolic disease risk. The corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) family of neuropeptides, as a central element of energy homeostasis, has been evaluated for its role in the pathophysiology of obesity. This review aims to summarize the relevance and effects of the CRH family of peptides in the pathophysiology of obesity spanning from fetal life to adulthood.