O2 Atmospheric Band Research Articles

Geographical and seasonal variations of gravity wave activities in the upper mesosphere measured by space-borne imaging of molecular oxygen nightglow

Geographical and seasonal variations of gravity wave events in the upper mesosphere were investigated using the nightglow imaging data obtained by the Visible and near-Infrared Spectral Imager (VISI) on the Ionosphere, Mesosphere, upper Atmosphere and Plasmasphere (IMAP) onboard the International Space Station (ISS). The nadir-imaging data of the O2(0–0) atmospheric band (762 nm) with the typical emission peak around 95 km altitude was used to investigate small-scale waves (horizontal wavelengths less than ~ 200 km) on a global scale. To detect gravity wave events, the variance of high-pass filtered nightglow images within a local 100 km radius was evaluated, with a threshold set at three times the standard deviation from the average variance of the background level. A data screening algorithm that evaluates the variance of upwelling contamination light emission was also introduced to remove contaminated data. Applying the variance filter and data screening algorithm to a nearly 3-year data set, from November 2012 to August 2015, occurrence maps of wave events for four seasons were derived. The occurrence maps show a higher frequency of wave events in winter high latitudes (> 40° N/S), considerably attributed to gravity wave activity associated with the polar night jet. Hot spots were observed near orographic sources in winter high latitudes, including the eastern part of North America, Europe, and the southern Andes. In the summer hemisphere, hot spots were detected at mid-to-high latitudes such as North America, Europe, and the eastern side of the Eurasian continent, and at equatorial latitudes just above the intertropical convection zone (ITCZ). They are likely gravity waves from deep convection that arise from mid-latitude summertime thunderstorms and the ITCZ, respectively. During the equinox seasons, hot spots were detected near convective sources such as the Amazon Rainforest, Congo Rainforest, and the Indochina peninsula.Graphical

On how atmospheric temperature affects the intensity of oxygen emissions in the framework of the Barth’s mechanism

The three-body recombination of oxygen atoms O + O + M → O2(el) + M is the dominant process of oxygen excitation in the Earth’s nightglow at altitudes of 85–110 km. The rate coefficient of this reaction, as well as the quantum yields of electronically excited products (O2(el) in the electronic states: 5πg, A3Σu+, A′3Δu, c1Σu+, b1Σg+, a1Δg, X3Σg-) depend on the gas kinetic temperature. In addition to the direct one-stage excitation channel of these levels of the O2 molecule, the Barth’s mechanism considers the two-stage energy transfer channel. In this channel, higher excited levels of the O2 act as precursors for the excitation of the O(1S) atom and the underlying electronic levels of the O2. In this study, we use sensitivity analysis to consider the temperature dependence of the processes of excitation and quenching for each of the excited components. The analytical expressions are obtained for the sensitivity coefficients of the Volume Emission Rates depending on temperature for the green line of atomic oxygen O(1S → 1D), the Herzberg I band O2(A3Σu+→X3Σg-) and O2 Atmospheric band O2(b1Σg+,v'=0→X3Σg-, v''=0). With the help of the sensitivity analysis performed in this work, we (a) confirm that the state O2(5πg), produced by the three-body recombination of atomic oxygen, is a precursor for the formation of O2(b1Σg+), (b) estimate the quantum yield of the O2(b1Σg+) state formed as a result of collisional reaction O2(5πg) with O2, and (c) propose a method for determining a type of precursor for production of O(1S) in the Barth's mechanism.

Gravity wave activity in the middle atmosphere from SATI airglow observations at northern mid-latitude: Seasonal variation and comparison with tidal and planetary wave-like activity

The study investigates the gravity waves activity detected in the mesosphere/lower thermosphere (MLT) region (80–120 km) using airglow observations performed by the Spectral Airglow Temperature Imager (SATI) at the Sierra Nevada Observatory (SNO) (37.06∘N, 3.38∘W). In this analysis column emission rates of the OH Meinel (6–2) and O2 Atmospheric (0–1) bands, as well as rotational temperatures derived from these emission rates are employed for the period of 1998–2015. The long time series allows the determination of gravity waves climatology at this site. The gravity wave activity content exhibits an annual variability with a maximum during winter and a faint increase in summer. It was found that gravity waves with periods of less than 3h are more prevalent than those with periods of 3–6h throughout the year, for both column emission rates and rotational temperatures. The gravity wave activity with periods of less than 3h is larger in summer, while gravity waves with period from 3 to 6 h have maximum activity around autumn-winter. The analysis showed that the gravity waves activity surpassed that of the semidiurnal tides, although was still smaller than the planetary wave activity, especially in summer when the planetary waves appear to dominate the dynamics of the MLT region. In general, wave activity is the main source of variability in both OH and O2 airglow emissions with the planetary wave activity being the main driver of the O2 emission variability. However, the rotational temperatures are more affected by seasonal variations, especially the OH rotational temperatures, accounting for more than the 40% of the overall observed variability.

Trends in the Airglow Temperatures in the MLT Region—Part 1: Model Simulations

Airglow intensity-weighted temperature variations induced by the CO2 increase, solar cycle variation (F10.7 as a proxy) and geomagnetic activity (Ap index as a proxy) in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) region were simulated to quantitatively assess their influences on airglow temperatures. Two airglow models, MACD-00 and OHCD-00, were used to simulate the O(1S) greenline, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and OH(8,3) airglow temperature variations induced by these influences to deduce the trends. Our results show that all three airglow temperatures display a linear trend of ~−0.5 K/decade, in response to the increase of CO2 gas concentration. The airglow temperatures were found to be highly correlated with Ap index, and moderately correlated with F10.7, with the OH temperature showing an anti-correlation. The F10.7 and Ap index trends were found to be ~−0.7 ± 0.28 K/100SFU and ~−0.1 ± 0.02 K/nT in the OH temperature, 4.1 ± 0.7 K/100SFU and ~0.6 ± 0.03 K/nT in the O2 temperature and ~2.0 ± 0.6 K/100SFU and ~0.4 ± 0.03 K/nT in the O1S temperature. These results indicate that geomagnetic activity can have a rather significant effect on the temperatures that had not been looked at previously.

On the assembly and calibration of a spatial heterodyne interferometer for limb sounding of the middle atmosphere

Spatial heterodyne interferometers are an enabling technology to build highly miniaturized optical instruments for the observation of faint emissions in the atmosphere. They are particularly suited for the deployment on nano- or micro-satellite constellations. One application of the SHI technology is a middle atmosphere temperature sounder based on the measurement of relative intensities emitted by the O2 atmospheric band system. Beside basic design considerations, aspects of the opto-mechanical design and assembly of a monolithic SHI for a space application are addressed. For the characterization of such an instrument, a light stimulus based on a Köhler illuminator is presented.

AtmoCube A1: airglow measurements in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere by spatial heterodyne interferometry

The Institute for Atmospheric and Environmental Research at the University of Wuppertal and the Institute of Energy and Climate Research Stratosphere at Research Center Juelich developed a CubeSat payload for atmospheric research. The payload consists of a small interferometer for the observation of airglow near 762 nm. The line intensities of the oxygen A-band are used to derive temperatures in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region. The temperature data will be used to analyze dynamical wave structures in the atmosphere. The interferometer technology chosen to measure the ro-vibrational structure of the O2 atmospheric band near 762 nm is a spatial heterodyne interferometer originally proposed by Connes in 1958. It can be designed to deliver extraordinary spectral resolution to resolve individual emission lines. The utilization of a two-dimensional imaging detector allows for recording interferograms at adjacent locations simultaneously. Integrated in a six-unit CubeSat, the instrument is designed for limb sounding of the atmosphere. The agility of a CubeSat will be used to sweep the line-of-sight through specific regions of interest to derive a three-dimensional image of an atmospheric volume using tomographic reconstruction techniques.

Empirical values of branching ratios in the three-body recombination reaction for O(1S) and O2(0,0) airglow chemistry

The branching ratios ε and α in the three-body recombination reaction for O(1S) greenline and O2(0,0) atmospheric band airglow chemistry represent the fraction of O2 that branch into the b1∑g+ and c1∑u- electronic states, respectively. In the present work, the empirical values of these branching ratios have been deduced using a numerical optimization approach. They were obtained using the optimization scheme known as the Covariance Matrix Adaptation Evolution Strategy (CMA-ES) with our MACD-00 model and simultaneous volume emission rate (VER) measurements of the O(1S) greenline and O2(0,0) atmospheric band emissions. The CMA-ES was employed as the optimization algorithm that would match the O(1S) and O2(0,0) VER profiles simulated by the MACD-00 model to observations made by OXYGEN/S35, S310.10, NASA Flight 4.339, ETON flights P229H and P230H, OASIS, SOAP/WINE, MULTIFOT, and WINDII. We found that most of the values deduced for ε were in the [0.1, 0.3] range, while most of the values of α were in the [0.01, 0.03] range. Excluding the outliers, the average branching ratio values involving the production of O2(b1∑g+) and O2(c1∑u-) were determined to be ε = 0.15 ± 0.02 and α = 0.018 ± 0.004, respectively. Overall, the simulations showed good agreement with the observations albeit with some discrepancies in the peak altitudes and shape of the profiles, possibly due to small perturbations in the observed VER profiles that are not considered in our simulations.

Possibility of simultaneous [O3] and [CO2] altitude distribution retrievals from the daytime emissions of electronically-vibrationally excited molecular oxygen in the mesosphere

In this study we have formulated the multi-channel method for retrieval of the O(3P), O3 and CO2 volume mixing ratios, Cv,O(3P),Cv,O3 and Cv,CO2, altitude profiles in the daytime mesosphere and lower thermosphere from the simultaneous measurements of intensities of three emissions formed by transitions from three electronically-vibrationally excited states, O2(b1Σg+, v = 2), O2(b1Σg+, v = 1) and O2(b1Σg+, v = 0). Only using the YM2011 model of kinetics of O3 and O2 photolysis (Yankovsky et al., 2016. J. Molec. Spectr., 327, 209–232) allowed us to consider in detail the complex groups of the processes of excitation and quenching of the states O2(b1Σg+, v = 0, 1, 2), the transitions from which form the system of the O2 Atmospheric bands observed in the dayglow of the Earth. For the altitude range 50–85 km we developed in details the two-channel method of simultaneously retrieval of the volume mixing ratios of O3 and CO2. For this method, we succeeded in obtaining formulas that can be used for remote sensing of the Earth atmosphere from satellites.

Solar polarimetry in the K I D2 line : A novel possibility for a stratospheric balloon

Of the two solar lines, K I D1 and D2, almost all attention so far has been devoted to the D1 line, as D2 is severely affected by an O2 atmospheric band. This, however, makes the latter appealing for balloon and space observations from above (most of) the Earth’s atmosphere. We estimate the residual effect of the O2 band on the K I D2 line at altitudes typical for stratospheric balloons. Our aim is to study the feasibility of observing the 770 nm window. Specifically, this paper serves as a preparation for the third flight of the Sunrise balloon-borne observatory. The results indicate that the absorption by O2 is still present, albeit much weaker, at the expected balloon altitude. We applied the obtained O2 transmittance to K I D2 synthetic polarimetric spectra and found that in the absence of line-of-sight motions, the residual O2 has a negligible effect on the K I D2 line. On the other hand, for Doppler-shifted K I D2 data, the residual O2 might alter the shape of the Stokes profiles. However, the residual O2 absorption is sufficiently weak at stratospheric levels that it can be divided out if appropriate measurements are made, something that is impossible at ground level. Therefore, for the first time with Sunrise III, we will be able to perform polarimetric observations of the K I D2 line and, consequently, we will have improved access to the thermodynamics and magnetic properties of the upper photosphere from observations of the K I lines.

On the importance of an atmospheric reference model: A case study on gravity wave-airglow interactions

The atmospheric reference model utilized in an airglow numerical study is important since airglow emissions depend on the number density of the light-emitting species. In this study, we employ 2-dimensional, nonlinear, time-dependent numerical models, Multiple Airglow Chemistry Dynamics (MACD) and OH Chemistry Dynamics (OHCD), that use the MSISE-90, NRLMSISE-00, and Garcia and Solomon (GS) model data as atmospheric reference models, to investigate gravity wave-induced airglow variations for the OH(8,3) airglow, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and O(1S) greenline emissions in the Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere (MLT) region. Our results show that the OHCD-00 produces the largest wave-induced OH(8,3) airglow intensity variation (∼34%), followed by the OHCD-90 (∼30%), then by the OHCD (∼22%). For O(1S) greenline, the MACD produces the largest wave-induced variation (∼33%), followed by the MACD-90 (∼28%), then by MACD-00 (∼26%). As for O2(0,1) atmospheric band, the MACD produces the largest wave-induced variation (∼31%), followed by the MACD-90 and MACD-00 (∼29%). Our study illustrates the importance and the need for a good atmospheric reference model that can accurately represent the atmosphere.

Semidiurnal tidal activity of the middle atmosphere at mid-latitudes derived from O2 atmospheric and OH(6-2) airglow SATI observations

In this paper, we investigate the tidal activity in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere region at 370N using OH Meinel and O2 atmospheric airglow observations from 1998 to 2015. The observations were taken with a Spectral Airglow Temperature Imager (SATI) installed at Sierra Nevada Observatory (SNO) (37.060N, 3.380W) at 2900 m height. From these observations a seasonal dependence of the amplitudes of the semidiurnal tide is inferred. The maximum tidal amplitude occurs in winter and the minimum in summer. The vertically averaged rotational temperatures and vertically integrated volume emission rate (rotational temperatures and intensities here in after), from the O2 atmospheric band measurements and the rotational temperature derived from OH Meinel band measurements reach the maximum amplitude about 1–4 h after midnight during almost all the year except in August–September where the maximum is found 2–4 h earlier. The amplitude of the tide in the OH intensity reaches the minimum near midnight in midwinter, then it is progressively delayed until 4:00 LT in August–September, and from there on it moves again forward towards midnight.The mean Krassovsky numbers for OH and O2 emissions are 5.9±1.8 and 5.6±1.0, respectively, with negative Krassovsky phases for almost all the year, indicating an upward energy transport. The mean vertical wavelengths for the vertical tidal propagation derived from OH and O2 emissions are 35±20 km and 33±18 km, respectively. The vertical wavelengths together with the phase shift in the temperature derived from both airglow emissions indicate that these airglow emission layers are separated by 7±3 km, on average.

Influences of CO2 increase, solar cycle variation, and geomagnetic activity on airglow from 1960 to 2015

Variations of airglow intensity, Volume Emission Rate (VER), and VER peak height induced by the CO2 increase, and by the F10.7 solar cycle variation and geomagnetic activity were investigated to quantitatively assess their influences on airglow. This study is an extension of a previous study by Huang (2016) covering a time period of 55 years from 1960 to 2015 and includes geomagnetic variability. Two airglow models, OHCD-90 and MACD-90, are used to simulate the induced variations of O(1S) greenline, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and OH(8,3) airglow for this study. Overall, our results demonstrate that airglow intensity and the peak VER variations of the three airglow emissions are strongly correlated, and in phase, with the F10.7 solar cycle variation. In addition, there is a linear trend, be it increasing or decreasing, existing in the airglow intensities and VERs due to the CO2 increase. On other hand, airglow VER peak heights are strongly correlated, and out of phase, with the Ap index variation of geomagnetic activity. The CO2 increase acts to lower the VER peak heights of OH(8,3) airglow and O(1S) greenline by 0.2 km in 55 years and it has no effect on the VER peak height of O2(0,1) atmospheric band.

Atmospheric dayglow diagnostics involving the O2(b‐X) Atmospheric band emission: Global Oxygen and Temperature (GOAT) mapping

AbstractThe terrestrial dayglow displays prominent emission features from the 0‐0 and 1‐1 bands of the O2 Atmospheric band system in the 760–780 nm region. We present an analysis of observations in this wavelength region recorded by the Space Shuttle during the Arizona Airglow Experiment. A major conclusion is that the dominant product of O(1D) + O2 energy transfer is O2(b, v = 1), a result that corroborates our previous laboratory studies. Moreover, critical to the interpretation of dayglow is the possible interference by N2 and N2+ bands in the 760–780 nm region, where the single‐most important component is the N2 1PG 3–1 band that overlaps with the O2(b‐X) 0‐0 band. When present, this background must be accounted for to reveal the O2(b‐X) 0‐0 and 1‐1 bands for altitudes at which the O2 and N2/N2+ emissions coincide. Finally, we exploit the very different collisional behavior of the two lowest O2(b) vibrational levels to outline a remote sensing technique that provides information on Atmospheric composition and temperature from space‐based observations of the 0‐0 and 1‐1 O2 atmospheric bands.

Simulations of airglow variations induced by the CO2 increase and solar cycle variation from 1980 to 1991

Airglow intensity and Volume Emission Rate (VER) variations induced by the increase of CO2 gas concentration and F10.7 variation (used as a proxy for the 11-year solar cycle variation) were investigated for the period from 1980 to 1991, encompassing a full solar cycle. Two airglow models are used to simulate the induced variations of O(1S) greenline, O2(0,1) atmospheric band , and OH(8,3) airglow for this study. The results show that both the airglow intensities and peak VERs correlate positively with the F10.7 solar cycle variation and display a small linear trend due to the increase of CO2 gas concentration. The solar-cycle induced airglow intensity variations show that O(1S) greenline has the largest variation (~26%) followed by the O2(0,1) atmospheric band (~23%) and then OH(8,3) airglow (~8%) over the 11 year timespan. The magnitudes of the induced airglow intensity variations by the increase of CO2 gas concentration are about an order of magnitude smaller than those by the F10.7 solar cycle variation. In general, the F10.7 solar cycle variation and CO2 increase do not seem to systematically alter the VER peak altitude of the airglow emissions, though the OH(8,3) VER peak altitude moves up slightly during the years when the F10.7 value falls under 100SFU.

LAICE CubeSat mission for gravity wave studies

The Lower Atmosphere/Ionosphere Coupling Experiment (LAICE) CubeSat mission will focus on understanding the interaction of atmospheric gravity waves generated by weather systems in the lower atmosphere with the mesosphere, lower thermosphere, and ionosphere (MLTI). Specifically, LAICE will focus on the energy and momentum delivered by these waves and attempt to connect the wave sources and the wave effects in three widely different altitude ranges, substantially adding to our knowledge of critical coupling processes between disparate atmospheric regions. The LAICE mission consists of a 6U CubeSat with a four-instrument payload. The retarding potential analyzer (RPA) will provide in-situ ion density and temperature measurements. A four-channel photometer will measure density and temperature variations in the mesosphere through observations of O2 (0,0) Atmospheric band and O2 Herzberg I band airglows. There are two pressure sensors that comprise the Space Pressure Suite (SPS): the Space Neutral Pressure Instrument (SNeuPI) and the LAICE Ionization gauge Neutral Atmosphere Sensor (LINAS). Both will provide neutral density measurements, but SNeuPI is a prototype sensor that will be validated by LINAS. This CubeSat mission, scheduled for launch in early 2016 from the International Space Station, provides a cost-effective approach to measuring low altitude in-situ parameters along with simultaneous imaging that is capable of addressing the fundamental questions of atmospheric gravity wave coupling in the MLTI region.

Gravity waves-induced airglow temperature variations, phase relationships, and Krassovsky ratio for OH(8,3) airglow, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and O(1S) greenline in the MLT region

The gravity wave-induced secular variations and fluctuations of airglow intensity-weighted temperatures for OH(8,3) nightglow, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and O(1S) greenline in the MLT region were simulated to study the wave effects’ on airglow temperatures. They were investigated with a time-dependent OH Chemistry-Dynamics (OHCD) model and a Multiple Airglow Chemistry-Dynamics (MACD) model with a small-scale linear gravity wave packet. The largest wave-induced airglow temperature secular variations are found to be ~0.8% in the O2(0,1) temperature and the largest wave-induced airglow temperature fluctuations are found to be ~0.25% in the O(1S) temperature. We also investigated the phase relationships between the airglow intensities and temperatures. Our results show that the airglow intensities lead the airglow temperatures most of the time. Also, airglow located at a higher altitude leads the airglow located at a lower altitude, indicating a downward phase progression, which is consistent with the phase of the wave packet we used. The Krassovsky ratio for these airglow emissions were calculated and found to be decreasing with increasing altitude. The amplitude of the Krassovsky ratio for OH(8,3) airglow, O2(0,1) atmospheric band, and O(1S) greenline were ~10, 6, and 4, respectively.

An investigation of long-distance propagation of gravity waves under CAWSES India Phase II Programme

Abstract. Coordinated measurements of airglow features from the mesosphere–lower thermosphere (MLT) region were performed at Allahabad (25.5° N, 81.9° E) and Gadanki (13.5° N, 79.2° E), India to study the propagation of gravity waves in 13–27° N latitude range during the period June 2009 to May 2010 under CAWSES (Climate And Weather of Sun Earth System) India Phase II Programme. At Allahabad, imaging observations of OH broadband emissions and OI 557.7 nm emission were made using an all-sky imager, while at Gadanki photometric measurements of OH (6, 2) Meinel band and O2 (0, 1) Atmospheric band emissions were carried out. On many occasions, the nightly observations reveal the presence of similar waves at both locations. Typically, the period of observed similar waves lay in the 2.2–4.5 h range, had large phase speeds (~ 77–331 m s−1) and large wavelengths (~ 1194–2746 km). The images of outgoing long-wave radiation activity of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the high-resolution infrared images of KALPANA-1 satellite suggest that such waves possibly originated from some nearby convective sources. An analysis of their propagation characteristics in conjunction with SABER/TIMED temperature profiles and Horizontal Wind Model (HWM 2007) wind estimates suggest that the waves propagated over long distances (~ 1200–2000 km) in atmospheric ducts.

Models of wave perturbations of the night emission of the molecular oxygen atmospheric (0,0) band

In order to plan experiments to determine the characteristics of atmospheric IGWs with the use of space-borne IR photoreceivers and to interpret their results, it is necessary to understand the effects accompanying IGW passage through atmospheric emission layers. For this purpose, two model problems are solved in this work. (i) In the framework of the mesoscale hydrodynamic model of the atmosphere, values were obtained for wave perturbations of night emission in the O2 atmospheric (0,0) band that are created by an instantaneous tropospheric point thermal source have. (ii) Based on the zone-averaged global circulation model of the middle atmosphere, the latitude-seasonal distribution of the nonlinear addition to the background zenith intensity of the same emission has been calculated.

A new technique for remote sensing of O2 density from 140 to 180 km

AbstractObservations of molecular oxygen are difficult to make in the Earth's atmosphere between 140 and 200 km altitude. Perhaps the most accurate measurements to date have been obtained from satellite instruments that measure solar occultations of the limb. These do provide height‐resolved O2 density measurements, but the nature of this technique is such that the temporal/spatial distribution of the measurements is uneven. Here a new space‐based technique is described that utilizes two bright dayglow emissions, the (0,0) transition of the O2 atmospheric band and the O I (630 nm), to derive the height‐resolved O2 density from 140 to 180 km. Data from the Remote Atmospheric and Ionospheric Detection System, which was placed on the International Space Station in late 2009, are used to illustrate this technique. The O2 density results for periods in May 2010 that were geomagnetically quiet and disturbed are compared to model predictions.

O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g), υ = 0, 1) relative yields in O((1)D) + O2 energy transfer.

Energy transfer from O((1)D) to O2 is the main source of O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g) in vibrational levels υ = 0 and 1 in the Earth's thermosphere. Knowledge of the relative yields for O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g) production in υ = 0 and 1 is essential for a reliable interpretation and modeling of the O2 atmospheric band emissions (b(1)Σ(+)(g) - X (3)Σ(-)(g) from these two vibrational levels. We report laboratory measurements of the relative yields at room temperature. In the experiments, O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g), υ = 0, 1) is generated by O((1)D) + O2 collisions following partial photodissociation of O2 at 157.6 nm. O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g), υ = 0, 1) emission detection is used to monitor the temporal evolution of the vibrational level populations. The measured fractional yield for υ = 1 is 0.8 ± 0.1, in contrast with the results of previous studies that indicated dominant O2(b(1)Σ(+)(g), υ = 0) production. A revision is warranted of the values used for these relative yields in atmospheric models.