Numeracy Scores Research Articles

The influence of students’ prior numeracy achievement on later numeracy achievement as a function of gender and year levels

AbstractStudents’ prior achievements in school have significant correlations with their later achievements. Specifically, students’ prior numeracy achievement is the most important predictor of later numeracy success. However, the assessment of this predictor across gender and its trend across students’ year levels is often overlooked or not adequately investigated. This study examined the relationships between prior numeracy achievement and its influence on students’ later numeracy achievement across gender. A focus on students’ year level also supported this examination. The data source was the Australian National Assessment Program—Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN) numeracy results of Years 5, 7 and 9 students (ages 9 to 14) from the 2017 to 2021 test years. The NAPLAN numeracy scores were analysed using regression analysis. The author examined prior numeracy achievement to determine the predictive value for students’ numeracy performance in NAPLAN across students’ year levels and gender. Findings from this study indicate that prior NAPLAN numeracy results for students were found to be very large in its predictive value (between R2 = .591 and .747) across the year levels. Notably, the predictive value showed an increasing pattern as students progressed through their academic years. Additionally, the study observed a discernible influence of gender on the predictive value of prior numeracy results. Potential initiatives to assist the educational outcomes of students across gender are discussed. Awareness of the influence of numeracy performance across gender might help teachers and educators create better and more efficient mathematics programs and targeted interventions. Such a decision requires identifying the relevant factors and measuring their degree of influence across students’ year levels and gender.

Statistical analysis plan for a cluster randomised trial in Madhya Pradesh, India: support to rural India’s public education system and impact on numeracy and literacy scores (STRIPES2)

BackgroundIndia has made steady progress in improving rates of primary school enrolment but levels of learning achievement remain low. The Support To Rural India’s Public Education System (STRIPES) trial provided evidence that an after-school para-teacher intervention improved numeracy and literacy levels in Telangana, India. The STRIPES2 trial investigates whether such an intervention will have a similar effect on the literacy and numeracy of primary school age children in the Satna District of Madhya Pradesh, India.Methods/designThe STRIPES2 trial forms one part of a cluster-randomised controlled trial with villages (clusters) randomised to receive either a health (CHAMPION2) or education (STRIPES2) intervention. Building on the design of the earlier CHAMPION/STRIPES trial, villages receiving the health intervention are controls for the education intervention and vice versa. The primary outcome is a combined literacy and numeracy score. Secondary outcomes include separate scores for literacy and numeracy; caregivers’ engagement with child’s learning; expenditure on education; enrolment in school; caregiver’s report of school attendance and the cost effectiveness of the intervention. Over 7000 primary school age children have been recruited and randomised in STRIPES2.DiscussionThis update to the published trial protocol gives a detailed plan for the statistical analysis of the STRIPES 2 trial.Trial registrationRegistry of India: CTRI/2019/05/019296. Registered on 23 May 2019. http://www.ctri.nic.in/Clinicaltrials/pdf_generate.php?trialid=31198&EncHid=&modid=&compid=%27,%2731198det%27

Duration of poverty and Ghanaian children’s learning and executive function outcomes

This study investigated whether transitory and persistent poverty spells were associated with children’s learning (literacy and numeracy scores) and executive function outcomes in Ghana. Children resided in the Greater Accra region (N = 2,154; 49% female; Mage = 5.2 years at wave-1) and were followed at four-time points over three years. Multivariate regression models were used to test whether exposure to transitory poverty (1–2 times) or persistent poverty (3–4 times) were differentially associated with child learning and executive function outcomes at wave-4 (Mage = 7.5 years) compared to children who did not experience poverty at any wave. Our results show that transitory poverty was significantly and negatively associated with children’s literacy scores. Persistent poverty had the largest negative relations for both learning outcomes. Findings were mixed for executive function, with persistent poverty negatively related to cognitive flexibility, but not inhibitory control. Implications for global child development and learning are discussed.

KEMAMPUAN AWAL NUMERASI SISWA KELAS V SEKOLAH DASAR DI TUBAN

This study aims to determine the initial numeracy skills of fifth grade students at Tuban. The research subjects were 32 students in class V SD Negeri Kebonsari I and 35 students in class V SD Negeri Kutorejo III. This research is a quantitative descriptive research based on observation and student scores in working numeracy-based questions. The questions given were 10 questions which included multiple choice, true-false, essay, and matchmaking questions. The readings used in the questions are based on local wisdom in Tuban, so it is hoped that students will find it easier to understand. Based on the test results, it was obtained that the average numeracy score of SD Negeri Kebonsari I students was 51 or in the medium category, and SD Negeri Kutorejo III was 14 or in the low category. These results indicate that the numeracy skills of fifth grade elementary school students in Tuban still need to be improved. Therefore, researchers developed thematic books based on local wisdom to improve the numeracy skills of fifth grade elementary school students.

Critical approaches to private education in the Global South

AbstractThis article highlights the key themes that animate the critical discourse on private education initiatives targeting poor children in the Global South. Scholars in the field remain skeptical that public‐private partnerships, low‐fee private schools, and various subsidy and voucher programs are best suited to addressing the underlying issues of equity and quality that plague public education systems in low‐ and middle‐income countries. Most, however, tend to adopt one of two different, though complementary, lines of analysis in drawing attention to the issue. Some scholars, for instance, use empirical evidence to show how low‐fee private schools fall short of delivering on promises to address the needs of all children and enhancing basic literacy and numeracy scores in comparison to public schools. Other scholars, however, map networks of people and money to reveal how private education in the Global South is guided by power and profit. The paper outlines the moral and analytic interests that guide these two approaches to the challenge private education presents, while also making the case for an additional mode of analysis that would test the democratic and social justice claims that feature in mission statements of larger foundations and institutions set in vulnerable societies.

The first year in formal schooling improves working memory and academic abilities

Neurocognition and academic abilities during the period of 4 and 7 years of age are impacted by both the transition from kindergarten to primary school and age-related developmental processes. Here, we used a school cut-off design to tease apart the impact of formal schooling from age, on working memory (WM) function, vocabulary, and numeracy scores. We compared two groups of children with similar age, across two years: first-graders (FG), who were enrolled into primary school the year that they became eligible and kindergarteners (KG), who were deferred school entry until the following year. All children completed a change detection task while brain activation was recorded using portable functional near-infrared spectroscopy, a vocabulary assessment, and a numeracy screener. Our results revealed that FG children showed greater improvement in WM performance and greater engagement of a left-lateralized fronto-parietal network compared to KG children. Further, they also showed higher gains in vocabulary and non-symbolic numeracy scores. This improvement in vocabulary and non-symbolic numeracy scores following a year in primary school was predicted by WM function. Our findings contribute to a growing body of literature examining neurocognitive and academic benefits conferred to children following exposure to formal schooling.

Associations of Childhood Exposure to Malaria with Cognition and Behavior Outcomes in Low- and Middle- Income Countries: A Systematic Review

Background: Malaria impacts >24 million children globally, resulting in >300,000 child deaths annually in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Little is known about the association between malarial infection and its impact on cognition and behavior. Our objective was to determine the association between different types of malaria infection with cognitive and behavioral outcomes among children living in LMICs.Methods: We systematically searched and reviewed the literature using six online bibliographic databases on 2/10/2022. Studies included involved children <18 years living in LMICs with active or past malaria infection and measured cognitive and/or behavior outcomes. A meta-analysis is underway for asymptomatic and severe categories of malaria. Due to heterogeneity of data, a qualitative summary was performed for uncomplicated malaria studies.Results: Out of 1994 initial titles reviewed, 40 articles met the inclusion criteria. 30 studies contributed data to the meta-analysis. Initial analyses suggest children with asymptomatic malaria tend to have lower mean scores than children without malaria in attention (SMD (standardized mean difference) -0.14, 95% CI -0.35 to 0.07) and general cognitive function (SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.38 to 0.07). No differences were found in language and numeracy scores. Children with severe malaria had significant reductions in their mean scores compared to children without malaria in language (SMD -0.35, 95% CI -0.53 to -0.17), general cognition (SMD -0.26, 95% CI -0.48 to -0.04), and memory (SMD -0.25, 95% CI -0.41 to -0.09). Most studies on uncomplicated malaria (7/8) found declines across multiple domains of cognitive testing compared to children without malaria.Conclusion: While analyses are not yet finalized, our initial findings suggest severe malaria is associated with worse neurodevelopment outcomes for children living in LMICs. Asymptomatic and uncomplicated malarial infection tend to have lower scores, though more research is needed. Support for children with malaria should consider strategies to optimize neurodevelopment.

The Numeracy Competency Profile of Elementary School Teachers in Ponjong District, Gunungkidul Regency Viewed from Demographic Factors

<p><span lang="EN-US">This study aims to describe the numeracy competency profile of elementary school teachers in Ponjong District, Gunungkidul Regency, viewed from demographic factors. The demographic factors used to describe, there were gender, type of school (public or private), length of teaching, age, and whether the teacher in question was certified as an educator. This numeracy competency was essential to explore because this skill was one of the most critical primary education goals; it helped realize successful advanced learning, social interaction, meeting the necessities of life, and global employment. This study used a design-based research (DBR) approach combined with professional learning community (PLC) and participatory action research (PAR), in which a sample of forty teachers was drawn equally from each group of teachers working groups (KKG). The data were taken using test instruments and analyzed using inferential statistical tests. The results showed that from the gender aspect, there was no difference in numeracy competence for both men and women. The second, based on the type of school, there was no difference in numeration competence between public and private schools. The third, from the length of teaching, it was found that teachers with a duration of education under five years had a higher numeracy score. The fourth, in terms of age, there was no difference in numeracy ability from twenty-five to fifty-six years. The conclusion, from the aspect of educator certification, was fascinating. Although not significant, there was an average difference in the numeracy ability test between teachers who were certified educators and those who were not certified, where teachers who did not have an educator certificate had a higher test average than those who already had an educator certificate.</span></p>

Assessed Numeracy Skills and Skill Use of Adults With Learning Disabilities in PIAAC

Adults with learning disabilities (LD) face educational and employment challenges and may also have other disabilities and health conditions. Little is known about these adults’ numeracy skills and how they use numeracy at work or home. The article’s objective was to investigate numeracy skills and skill use for U.S. adults with LD. The author conducted descriptive and regression analyses of the data from the 2012/2014/2017 U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Findings are presented on assessed numeracy skills and skill use, relationships of use and skills, and skill use among seven groups of adults with LD. Compared with the general population, adults with LD have lower mean numeracy scores. Skill use at home adds to the variance explained in numeracy skills, which suggests that using numeracy skills matters in gaining skills. Knowing the relationships of assessed numeracy skills with skill use helps educators implement strategies to support adult program completion. Implications of findings are discussed for adult educators and policymakers.

AGING AND LONGITUDINAL EFFECTS ON NUMERACY

Abstract Numeracy, the ability to competently make use of numbers and numerical information, is a skill associated with diverse positive outcomes across the lifespan. Numeracy is related to increases in education attainment, economic success, and the quality of health and financial decisions (e.g., Chesney, Bjälkebring, & Peters, 2015; Reyna et al., 2009; Smith, McArdle, & Willis, 2010). More generally, numeracy correlates positively with measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence, but accounts for a unique portion of the variance in models predicting risk comprehension (Cokely et al., 2012) and performance in many decision-making tasks (e.g., Peters et al., 2006; Peters, 2012). Age effects on cognitive functioning are well established, generally describing declines in fluid abilities and increases or stability in crystallized abilities (for a review, see Salthouse 2010), but little is known about the longitudinal trajectory of numeracy into older age. The current study investigates longitudinal age effects on numeracy using a sample of 524 adults (2008 Agerange = 20-78) from the RAND American Life Panel. Participants completed a numeracy measure in both 2008 and 2019, a span of 11 years. Results show that numeracy scores generally decreased between measurement points (β = -.24, t = -2.27, p = .03) and that increased age was predictive of a larger decrease in numeracy scores (β = -.02, t = -2.07, p = .04). Results are discussed as they relate to cognitive aging and how the trajectory of numeracy compares to other cognitive constructs.

Dampak Pembelajaran Daring di Era Pandemi Covid-19 terhadap Kompetensi Numerasi Siswa Sekolah Dasar

The purpose of this research was to find out the impact of online learning in students' numeracy skills in addition and subtraction of fractions in grade 5 elementary school. This research used a quantitative approach with a pre-experimental method, and the treatment is an online learning system. The data collection technique used tests. The test given is the students' numeracy skills in addition and subtraction of fractions in grade 5 elementary school. Data analysis in this research used descriptive statistics (N-Gain) and the mean difference test (Mann-Whitney) used the SPSS Statistics 22 application. The results of this research indicate that the student's N-Gain score is 0.39. This indicates that there is an increase in numeracy scores in the moderate category, and based on the average difference test, sig. which is 0.002 smaller than 0.05 (α). Its means there is a significant increase in students' numeracy skills using online learning. Keywords: Online Learning, Numeracy, Addition and Subtraction of Fractions

Longitudinal associations between weight status and academic achievement in primary school children.

Evidence for longitudinal associations between childhood weight status and academic achievement remains unclear due to considerable heterogeneity in study design, measures of academic achievement and appropriate categorization of weight status. To examine longitudinal associations between childhood weight status (underweight, healthy weight, overweight/obese) and academic achievement in the transition from preschool to primary (elementary) school among Australian school children. Data were from the Healthy Active Preschool and Primary Years study. Height and weight, for calculating BMI were measured at baseline (preschool age 3-5 years; 2008/9) and follow-up (primary school age 6-8 years; 2011/12). Academic achievement was measured at age 9 years. No associations between BMI z-score or weight category in the preschool years and later NAPLAN scores were found for boys. For girls, having a higher BMI z-score (B=-13.68, 95%CI: -26.61, -0.76) and being affected by overweight (B=-33.57, 95%CI: -61.50, -5.24) in preschool was associated with lower language scores. Remaining affected by overweight from preschool to primary school was associated with lower numeracy (B=-25.03, 95%CI: -49.74, -0.33), spelling (B=-33.5, 95%CI: -63.43, -3.58), language (B=-37.89, 95%CI: -72.75, -3.03) and total achievement scores (B=-24.24, 95%CI: -44.85, -3.63) among girls. For boys, becoming affected by overweight was associated with lower spelling (B=-38.76, 95%CI: -73.59, -3.93) and total achievement scores (B=-27.70, 95%CI: -54.81, -0.58). Associations between being affected by overweight/obesity and poorer academic achievement were more pronounced in girls than boys, indicating potentially inequitable impacts of excess weight and highlighting the greater need for intervention among girls. However, stronger study designs are needed to confirm our findings.

Antibiotic use numeracy: Developing the infectious numeracy test (INT).

Inadequate numeracy is a barrier to patients' understanding of their health. No measure of numeracy related to antibiotic use is available. to develop and validate a measure of numeracy of antibiotic use, and to make this measure available in the Arabic language and context. Best practices for developing, translating and validating scales were consulted to develop an anonymous survey administered on SurveyMonkey. Ten open-ended questions for which participants provided an answer assessed basic numeracy covering fractions, percentages, proportionality, measurement, and estimation, contextualized to real life situations. A panel of five experts, and 10 cognitive debriefings provided face and content validity for the tool. Individuals ≥18 years, who had mastery of Arabic or English were included. Exploratory factor analysis was performed to characterize the psychometric properties of the items, using principal-component analysis. Convergent validity was established by comparing numeracy scores with the antibiotic knowledge scale scores. Differences in numeracy scores according to sociodemographic variables were tested using multivariate analyses of variance. Two hundred fifty-four responses were obtained, giving a response rate of 63.5%. A two-factor structure which explained 44.2% of the variance evolved: "Mathematical knowledge and problem-solving skills" and "Numeracy-related practices and experience". An acceptable reliability of Cronbach's alpha coefficient=0.713. Higher numeracy scores were significantly correlated with the scores of the antibiotic knowledge (r=0.205, p<0.01) and factor one within the tool: "side effects and resistance" (r=0.162, p=0.05). Participants with University/College education presented higher levels of numeracy-related practices and experience than those with high-school education. Likewise, participants with medical insurance presented with higher numeracy scores than those without. A valid and reliable measure of antibiotic numeracy in English and Arabic was created. The tool could identify patients with low numeracy who are candidates for targeted interventions and intensive education on appropriate antibiotic use.

Linking Canadian Administrative Data: Income Trajectories, Residential and School Mobility, and Grade 3 Academic Achievement.

ObjectiveThe objective is to examine the association between trajectories of childhood residential and school mobility and academic achievement (literacy, numeracy) in Grade 3 using linked whole-population administrative data in Manitoba, Canada. Secondarily, we assessed childhood residential/school mobility based on neighbourhood income levels (moving in/out of low- or mid-/high-income neighbourhoods). ApproachThis retrospective cohort study used linkable, de-identified administrative data (health, education, national census, provincial survey) from the provincial Population Research Data Repository housed at the Manitoba Centre for Health Policy (MCHP). Among kindergarteners from 2005 to 2014 (n = 83,894), those not having continuous residency in Manitoba, valid education assessments, and relevant family-level covariates were excluded. We followed this eligible cohort from kindergarten to Grade 3 based on various neighbourhood income trajectories of residential and school mobility. To assess Grade 3 literacy and numeracy scores based on trajectories, log-binomial regression models were conducted using SAS® version 9.4. ResultsThe total cohort included 36,754 children; at the end of kindergarten, 14.2% resided in low-income neighbourhoods, and 84.8% lived in mid-/high-income neighbourhoods. Moving between two low-income neighborhoods between kindergarten to Grade 3 was associated with an increased risk of poor Grade 3 numeracy and literacy scores (numeracy aRR=1.39 [1.16,1.67]; literacy aRR=1.31 [1.08,1.59]). When moving between neighborhood income levels, the association was stronger for children moving into low-income neighbourhoods (e.g., mid-/high-income to low-income: numeracy aRR=1.41 [1.19,1.67]) than children moving into mid/high-income neighbourhoods (e.g., low-income to mid-/high-income: numeracy aRR=1.31 [1.08,1.59]). Changing schools between kindergarten and Grade 3 was also associated with poorer numeracy and literacy scores in Grade 3 (numeracy aRR=1.31 [1.22,1.40]; literacy aRR=1.34 [1.24,1.44]); however, the strength varied based on residential mobility patterns. ConclusionMoving homes/schools can differentially impact children’s educational attainment depending upon the income level of residing neighborhood(s). Stakeholders should recognize different levels of risks related to mobility and provide support accordingly to reduce the adverse impact. Support systems should be tailored to not only children but also families and neighbourhoods.

Effects of Adults’ Competencies and Skills on Falling into NEETs and Income

With the advent of the 4th industrial revolution, having key competencies and skills is essential to maintain a job, and lifelong learning should be secured. This study was to identify the status of Koreans’ basic competencies and technology use and examine the effects of these variables on the NEET trend and income of Koreans. Data were from the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) 2018 Koreans aged from 16 to 65 years old. A series of regression analyses were employed to analyze data. The findings revealed that for literacy, the mean difference for education levels was higher than that for the age group. For numeracy, the mean difference for the age group was higher than that for education levels. As Koreans age, their competencies of numeracy also decrease. The result showed that the higher the numeracy score was, the lower the NEET tendency was. However, numeracy did not show a significant effect on income. Skills such as writing reports and using statistics outside of work are infrequent, but those skills help reduce the possibility of falling into NEET. The result suggested that it is necessary to enhance the lifelong learning so that adults can maintain literacy, numeracy and problem solving skills in technology-rich society and work.

The role of parent-led and child-led home numeracy activities in early mathematical skills

Existing studies have shown mixed evidence for the role of the home numeracy environment (HNE) in supporting children’s early numeracy skills. To address some of the limitations of the existing literature, the present study used a multi-method approach to assess the parent-led HNE. Parents of children aged 3–5 years completed a questionnaire to assess the frequency of engagement in home numeracy activities and parent and child number talk was coded from play-based observations to assess the quality of engagement. This study also assessed the role of child-led home numeracy activities, including child number talk and Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity (SFON) on early numeracy skills. Children (n = 164) were assessed on six early number skills (counting, cardinal knowledge, ordering skills, digit naming, arithmetic and symbolic to non-symbolic number mapping). Parent-led activities (questionnaire-assessed HNE activities and parent number talk) were not significantly associated with the composite of these six numeracy skills. There was also no significant association between parent-reported frequency of engagement in HNE activities and parent number talk. Child-led skills (SFON and child number talk) were not significantly associated with the composite numeracy score. Children’s and parents’ use of cardinal number talk was associated with children’s performance on the cardinality task, although associations were small (rs =.22 to.31). This study adds further moderate evidence that parent-led home numeracy activities may not be associated with overall early numeracy skills, and we consider next steps for researchers seeking to understand the role of the HNE.

Numeracy Gender Gap in STEM Higher Education: The Role of Neuroticism and Math Anxiety.

The under-representation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) is ubiquitous and understanding the roots of this phenomenon is mandatory to guarantee social equality and economic growth. In the present study, we investigated the contribution of non-cognitive factors that usually show higher levels in females, such as math anxiety (MA) and neuroticism personality trait, to numeracy competence, a core component in STEM studies. A sample of STEM undergraduate students, balanced for gender (NF = NM = 70) and Intelligent Quotient (IQ), completed online self-report questionnaires and a numeracy cognitive assessment test. Results show that females scored lower in the numeracy test, and higher in the non-cognitive measures. Moreover, compared to males’, females’ numeracy scores were more strongly influenced by MA and neuroticism. We also tested whether MA association to numeracy is mediated by neuroticism, and whether this mediation is characterized by gender differences. While we failed to detect a significant mediation of neuroticism in the association between MA and numeracy overall, when gender was added as a moderator in this association, neuroticism turned out to be significant for females only. Our findings revealed that non-cognitive factors differently supported numeracy in females and males in STEM programs.

Does socioeconomic status impact the relationship between school absence and outcomes?

Absence from school, especially frequent or prolonged absence, is acknowledged as a potential factor in school dropout and suboptimal academic achievement. The issue of absence from school took on added significance in 2020 with the onset of the COVID-19 crisis, which resulted in schooling interruptions in several jurisdictions. However, there is little agreement in the literature on the exact relationship between absence and school outcomes as a function of socioeconomic status (SES). Using nationally representative pre-COVID longitudinal data of young Australians aged 12–13 and 14–15, this paper examines the relationship between absence from school on the one hand and school belonging and academic achievement (numeracy and reading test scores) on the other. The paper also examines whether SES intersects this relationship. Controlling for gender, prior educational achievement, computer access, and time spent doing homework, the study finds that absence impacts belonging, but that SES does not significantly influence this relationship. The effect of absence on reading is not significant either. However, absence is associated with numeracy outcomes, with the strongest associations among low SES young people at age 14. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.

Impact of School Facilities Grant on Access and Learning Achievements in Public Primary Schools in Uganda: A Randomised Experiment

The study explored the impact of the availability of school facilities on the access and learning achievements in primary education in Uganda. It employed a randomised phase-in design by randomly assigning surveyed schools into phase I (treatment) and phase II (control). Of the 301 schools, 160 were randomly selected to receive a facilities grant (SFG) in FY2016/17 and FY2017/18 (phase I) while the remaining 141 were to receive the grant after 2019 (phase II). The results revealed a statistically significant impact on access and attendance in the lower grades of primary education. Schools that received SFG support in FY2017/18 and FY2016/17 significantly increased enrolment by 23.61 and 23.33 pupils, respectively, relative to the control group. The impacts in FY2016/17 and FY2017/18 on school attendance were 16.2 per cent and 13.2 per cent, respectively. Further, schools that received the grant in FY2017/18 recorded a significant increase in numeracy and literacy test scores by 1.28 and 1.05 percentage points, respectively, more than the control group. The study demonstrates that adequate school infrastructure remains a key component of learning support as it promotes access to education as well as students’ learning engagement. Further analysis is recommended to examine the appropriate and effective model of investment in school infrastructure.

Age declines in numeracy: An analysis of longitudinal data.

Numeracy, the ability to understand and use basic probability and numerical concepts, is associated with diverse positive outcomes across the lifespan. Prior cross-sectional research on numeracy has generally found a negative association with age, but positive correlations with male gender, education attainment, and measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence have been more robust. Age effects on cognitive functioning are well established, but little is known about longitudinal trends of numeracy into older age. The present study investigates longitudinal age effects on numeracy using a sample of 524 adults (2008 Agerange = 20-78) from the RAND American Life Panel. Participants completed a numeracy measure in both 2008 and 2019, a span of 11 years. Using a linear mixed-effect model to predict numeracy scores, a significant interaction between the year of testing and the quadric age term shows a decline in numeracy scores beginning in later middle age, a trend that falls in between those previously found for crystallized and fluid cognitive abilities. Numeracy declines are somewhat mitigated for males and those with higher education, but the interaction of the two variables did not return a clear pattern of results. Prior research has shown that numeracy is positively related to the quality of health and financial decisions and, ultimately, more positive health and economic outcomes. The implications of age declines in numeracy are discussed in relation to health and financial decision-making, tasks that remain relevant into old age. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).