Number Of Turkeys Research Articles

Variations in Plasma Thyroxine (T 4 ) and Triiodothyronine (T 3 ) in Eastern Wild Turkeys

A total of 185 plasma samples, from 3 different groups of eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), were analyzed for thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) by radioimmunoassay. Of this total, 118 were from 4 pen-reared birds sampled biweekly for 14 months, 43 were from trapped birds, and 25 were from gobblers killed during the spring hunting season. Variations in plasma T, level corresponded to changes in environmental temperature and to the molting process. However, variations in the plasma T3 level of the pen-reared birds could not be correlated with seasonal changes. Total plasma thyroid hormones (T4 + T3) varied in the same manner as T4 alone. There were significant differences (P 0.05) due to sex or age were found in plasma T1, T, or T, + T3. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 41(4):650-656 Thyroid hormone deficiency (hypothyroidism), such as that produced by iodine deficiency, thyroidectomy, or feeding or of an antithyroid agent, has been shown to decrease egg production in domestic chickens (Winchester 1939) and to cause cessation of spermatogenesis in roosters (Maqsood 1952). Growth and development are also retarded by hypothyroidism (Winchester and Davis 1952, Singh et al. 1968). A decrease in thyroid function in free ranging populations of eastern wild turkeys might affect their reproductive performance, and thus, result in a decrease in the actual number of turkeys in that population. This study presents the possibility of using plasma levels of thyroid hormones as an indicator of the physiological status of eastern wild turkey populations. Before investigations can be undertaken to determine the existence of thyroid hormone deficiency on populations of free ranging wild turkeys, the following questions need to be answered: (1) What are the ranges for normal plasma levels of thyroid hormones? (2) Do the levels of these hormones exhibit variations due to sex, age, and seasonal changes? (3) Do values differ between samples obtained from pen-reared, trapped, and killed wild turkeys? (4) Since there are 2 principal thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), should both or only 1 be measured? The authors wish to thank W. H. Hamrick, Wildlife Biologist, Game and Fish Division, Alabama Department of Conservation, and J. R. Gwaltney, research assistant, Auburn University, for their assistance in obtaining blood samples from trapped and killed specimens. This research was supported in part by funds from a special appropriation from the Alabama State Legislature to the Alabama Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. MATERIALS AND METHODS

Salmonellosis and intensive farming

Introduction FHt l~(:OYO,~l( N~¢[-:SS~TV of producing meat and poultry at a reasonable price has rcsulte~l in the introduction of intensive livestock farming, often referred to as factory farming. By keeping animals enclosed it is possible to keep strict control of diet, ensuring maximum weight gain and high conversion rates for the minimum output of feeding stuff and labour. A definition of intensive farming was given in a report in 1966 by a Working Party of Public Health Officers of the County of Cheshire (Report, 1966). definition used was that given in the Agricultural Nuisances Bill, introduced on I0 March, 1964, as a Private Member's Bill, which failed to pass the second reading: The keeping of creatures for the production of food, wool, skin or fur, in buildings so as to unnaturally restrict their fi'eedom of movement. Such a definition will include livestock reared in a contined space, such as battery houses, broiler houses and piggeries, and cattle reared and fattened in an inte~sive manner. Traditional farming methods, however efficient, could not compete economically without the newer techniques, and it was only by the introduction of .intensive farming in the 1950's that it was possible not only to prevent a rise in the price of home-produced food in the face of inflationary rise in the raw materials for feedingstuffs, but in some cases to lower the retail price. Intensive farming is applied to poultry, such as chickens, turkeys and ducks, to pigs, calves, sheep, rabbits and even mink. By the use of selective breeding, the introduction of-controlled feeding with scientifically balanced diets, the keeping of animals in optimal environmental conditions with particular attention to heating, thermal insulation of buildings, lighting and ventilation, it was possible to increase the growth rate with less food in a shorter time. An example of this is that in 1950 a 4 lb broiler chicken was produced in ten weeks with 3-5 lb of feed/lb weight gain; in 1968 a similar broiler chicken was produced in nine weeks with 20-2.3 lb of feed/lb weight gain. Table 1 shows the increase in fowls and turkeys in England and Wales since 1939. Fowls have almost doubled in numbers and the number of turkeys has increased more than fivefold. Table ll shows the increase in pigs, sheep and cattle. In each case the increase is in the region of 2.2 million animals. Table

Preliminary Observations on Hemorrhagic Enteritis of Turkeys

ABSTRACT HEMORRHAGIC enteritis in turkeys has been observed frequently in the field and in diagnostic laboratories. This condition appears to be a distinct entity from the hemorrhagic syndrome observed in chickens. Since Pomeroy and Fenstermacher (1937) reported on hemorrhagic enteritis in Minnesota turkeys, little has appeared in the literature regarding this condition. These workers (Pomeroy and Fenstermacher, personal communication) have observed hemorrhagic enteritis since their original publication and the senior author and others have also observed the condition a number of times during the last five years. Hemorrhagic enteritis has occurred in two experimental groups of turkeys during the past three years. Both outbreaks of the disease were observed in confinement-raised turkeys. Eleven hundred turkeys were involved in the first outbreak which occurred at 7 weeks of age. The second outbreak in the same number of turkeys was first noticed when the turkeys were 11 weeks of age. The turkeys in . . .

Raising Turkeys in Partial Confinement

The number of turkeys on Indiana farms has shown a consistent decrease from 1890 to the present time. The census report of 1890 listed Indiana as having over five hundred thousand turkeys while the report of 1920 showed slightly more than one hundred thousand and the number is still diminishing. This situation applies to all but four of the north central states in the United States. The states of Kansas and Nebraska have shown an increase in the number of turkeys in the past decade, South Dakota has shown an increase since 1900 and North Dakota since 1890.Many Indiana farmers attempt to raise turkeys each year and the result is usually a keen disappointment. Successful turkey production would help many farmers, especially through the southern section of the state, in placing their farms on a more profitable basis.The decrease in the number of turkeys kept and the apparent .