Number Of School Years Research Articles

Overrepresentation of Black Americans in Psychiatric Inpatient Care

Numerous studies have documented overrepresentation of the black population in psychiatric inpatient settings, but none have included certain important covariates or examined heterogeneity within the black population. After controlling for key social, demographic, and clinical factors, the investigators sought to determine whether blacks are overrepresented in inpatient psychiatric settings; they examined differences within the black population by separately examining the prevalence of inpatient treatment of African Americans and U.S.- and foreign-born Caribbean blacks. Secondary analysis was performed on data from two population-based household surveys, the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) and the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R), which provided a population-based sample of 9,371 community-dwelling adults, including 3,570 African Americans, 1,621 blacks of Caribbean descent, and 4,180 non-Hispanic whites. Using logistic regression, the investigators estimated self-reported lifetime psychiatric hospitalization as a function of racial-ethnic background after controlling for sociodemographic differences and differences in lifetime counseling or therapy and psychiatric diagnosis. With controls for demographic and clinical factors, both African Americans (odds ratio [OR]=2.52, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.91-3.33) and Caribbean blacks (OR=2.74, CI=1.98-3.82) had higher odds than whites of having a psychiatric hospitalization in their lifetime. U.S.-born Caribbean blacks had much higher odds of hospitalization (OR=5.47, CI=3.60-8.32) than whites, whereas the likelihood of hospitalization of foreign-born Caribbean blacks did not differ from that of whites (OR=.96, CI=.51-1.82). Disparities between blacks and whites in the prevalence of psychiatric inpatient treatment appear to be persistent, but global comparisons mask important heterogeneity within the black population.

Toxoplasmosis screening and risk factors amongst pregnant females in Natal, northeastern Brazil

Toxoplasmosis results in systemic disease, and if the mother is infected for the first time during gestation, the fetus may suffer substantial damage. Relatively little is known about the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis in pregnancy in most states of northeastern Brazil. Seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis among pregnant woman was studied in Natal, capital of Rio Grande do Norte State, in northeastern Brazil, from March to December 2007. The sera were tested for IgM and avidity of IgG antibodies to Toxoplasma by a microparticle enzyme immunoassay. The overall seroprevalence was high [126/190 (66.3%)]; prevalence increased with age indicating that in this setting most infections occur in adulthood (third decade of life). Only one pregnant woman was IgM positive and had high-avidity antibodies. The high percentage of pregnant women who are vulnerable to this parasite (33.1%) favors primary infection during pregnancy. Our studies show that direct contact with cats or dogs was highly associated with toxoplasmosis (odds ratio 2.72, P<0.001, 95% CI 1.46-5.02). The number of years in school (P<0.001), precarious socioeconomic status and limited knowledge about the disease (P<or=0.05 for both) were also associated with toxoplasmosis infection. The pattern of risk factors for infection corroborate other studies in Brazil.

Upper extremity pain and computer use among engineering graduate students: A replication study

Recent literature identified upper extremity musculoskeletal symptoms at a prevalence of >40% in college populations. The study objectives were to determine weekly computer use and the prevalence of upper extremity musculoskeletal symptoms in a graduate student population, and make comparisons with previous graduate and undergraduate cohorts. One hundred sixty-six graduate students completed a survey on computing and musculoskeletal health. Associations between individual factors and symptom status, functional limitations, academic impact, medication use, and health services utilization were determined. Logistic regression analyses evaluated the association between symptom status and computing. Cross-study comparisons were made. More symptomatic participants experienced functional limitations than asymptomatic participants (74% vs. 32%, P < 0.001) and reported medication use for computing pain (34% vs. 10%, P < 0.01). More participants who experienced symptoms within an hour of computing used health services compared to those who experienced symptoms after an hour of computer use (60% vs. 12%, P < 0.01). Years of computer use (OR = 1.59, 95% CI 1.05-2.40) and number of years in school where weekly computer use was more than 10 hr (OR = 1.56, 95% CI 1.04-2.35) were associated with pain within an hour of computing. Cross-study comparisons found college populations more similar than different. The overall findings reinforced previous literature documenting the prevalence of upper extremity musculoskeletal symptoms in college populations, suggesting an important population for participating in public health interventions designed to support healthy computing practices and identify risk factors important to evaluate in future cohort studies. Am. J. Ind. Med. 52:113-123, 2009. (c) 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Meeting patient needs in the hospital setting— are written nutrition education resources too hard to understand?

AbstractAims: To determine the readability of written nutrition education resources currently used in the Nutrition and Dietetics Department in a large teaching hospital and assess whether these resources are of an appropriate readability level for the target population.Methods: Dietitians in the department (n = 17) were interviewed to identify resources in use. Readability analysis of current resources (n = 235) followed, using the Simplified Measure of Gobbledegook (SMOG). The SMOG scores were compared with census data for the average reading ability of the target population based on the number of school years completed.Results: The readability level for the resources ranged from 6 to 15. The mean was 10.4 ± 1.89 (n = 235). This compared with a reading ability in the target population of between years 6 and 8. This discrepancy suggests that the resources may be too complex and are unlikely to be well understood by the target population.Conclusions: In the time‐poor clinical environment where there is reliance on written nutrition resources to support and reinforce education messages, it is pertinent to pay more attention to readability level. Written resources are unlikely to be effective if they are too complex. It is therefore suggested that dietitians consider the readability when developing and reviewing written nutrition education resources to ensure best‐quality patient care. The results of this project suggest that the SMOG index is a useful method to use for this purpose as it is widely available, easy to use and expedient in implementation.

Relation of Educational Level to Inflammation-Sensitive Biomarker Level

It is a well-established finding that cardiovascular morbidity varies among groups of different socioeconomic status. Inflammatory processes have been proposed as a possible mediator of this variance. Level of education is an important indicator of socioeconomic status, inversely related to levels of inflammatory biomarkers. Whether this association was significant in a subpopulation of highly educated individuals was questioned. This cross-sectional study enrolled attendees of an executive health screening program intended specifically for executive and high-wage personnel from September 2002 to November 2007. A detailed questionnaire, anthropometric measurements, and laboratory data were used to determine self-reported years of education and cardiovascular risk factors. Linear regression models included high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and white blood cell count as dependent variables and were adjusted for multiple potential confounders. Data for 8,998 subjects (5,757 men, 3,241 women) with a mean age of 44 years (range 18 to 84) were analyzed. More than two-thirds reported >or=14 years of schooling, and >2,900 reported >or=17 years of schooling. We found a statistically significant inverse association between number of school years and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, fibrinogen, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Higher levels of education were associated with lower prevalences of diabetes and current smoking in both genders and lower prevalences of hypertension and dyslipidemia in women. In conclusion, level of education was inversely associated with inflammatory biomarkers and prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors, even within highly educated populations.

Bridging the research gap between the Northern and Southern shores of the Mediterranean

Bridging the research gap between the Northern and Southern shores of the Mediterranean

Hábitos de higiene bucal e uso de serviços odontológicos por adolescentes e adultos do Município de Canoas, Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil

Summary The study aimed an investigation of oral hygiene methods and use of dental services by adolescents and adults in the Municipality of Canoas, Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. This population-based, cross-sectional study found an average of tooth brushing three times a day. More than a half of the sample revealed no use of dental floss. “After lunch” was the moment of the day most chosen for teeth cleaning. Oral hygiene was more frequently performed by women, young adults, and people with higher number of school years. The almost totality of the sample had visited the dentist at least once in their life. The most frequent reason was oral health follow-up. The great majority of the people self-reported use of private dental services. Frequency of tooth brush was high, however use of dental floss was restricted. Public service contributed to a very low percentage of dental service’s provision, a situation that implies deeper analysis about the barriers to access to dental assistance.

Pregnant Teenager Involvement in Sexual Activity and the Social Context

Pregnancy during adolescence represents a challenge to society as a whole. Its incidence is increasing and brings about social and medical consequences to both the teen mothers and their children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate pregnant teenager involvement in sexual activity and the social context. The group studied comprised 152 pregnant teenagers attending the Department of Pediatrics, Santa Casa de Sao Paulo (SCSP) General Hospital. All information was analyzed. The age at first intercourse was 14.2 years and the average period between first intercourse and pregnancy was 1.4 years. Most pregnancies (75%) were neither planned nor wanted, however, most teen mothers (64.3%) did not use any contraceptive method. Of the pregnant teenagers, 68.1% came from unstructured families where in 71% of the teen pregnancy cases, there was a role model (mother, sister, or cousin who already experienced teen pregnancy). The average number of school years attended by the analyzed pregnant teenagers was 8.1 years, however, there was a high dropout rate of 40.1%. The age at first intercourse was low and concurs with the high incidence of unstructured families. The average number of school years attended was high, which would theoretically reflect a greater knowledge with regard to human reproduction, pointing to the multicausality of teen pregnancy and the role played by the family. Conclusions: We confirmed that teen pregnancy presents multicausal etiology; sexual initiation of pregnant teenagers was quite early with high dropout rates, which indicated that prevention methodology should be based on early detection of risk factors for elaboration of appropriate prevention proposals.

Neuropsychological Testing

Neuropsychological testing is important for the diagnosis and follow-up of dementia; it can also help provide consultation on patient care. However, lengthy testing is costly and can be stressful to the subjects. Tests developed for members of the majority culture often are inappropriate for ethnic minorities, especially those who speak a different language, have little or no formal education, and grew up in vastly different circumstances. Variables that directly affect test performance, such as education and acculturation instead of race or ethnicity, should be considered as explanatory variables for test performance. Reading level may be a better index for educational attainment than the number of years in school. Neuropsychological testing can be improved in several directions: (1) Use tests that are appropriate for the subject's background. (2) Use detailed scoring of a smaller number of test items to reduce test time, and establish discontinuation rules to limit the subject's experience of failure. (3) Develop parallel test forms for repeated assessment of the same individuals. (4) Strive for large and representative standardization samples. (5) Use computerized test norms based on findings of statistical analysis to better adjust for confounding variables.

Misconceptions about Strength Exercise among Older Adults

The purposes of this study were to determine current opinions of strength exercise among older adults and whether knowledge of recommended protocols differs between strength-exercise participants and nonparticipants. One hundred twenty-nine older adults (77.5 +/- 8.6 years) responded to questions about their opinions, experiences, and knowledge of strength-exercise recommendations. Some misconceptions were identified in the sample, with 48.4% of participants responding "no" to "strength training increases muscle mass," 45% responding "no" to "increasing weight is more important than number of repetitions for building strength," and 37% responding that walking is more effective than lifting weights at building muscle strength. The number of correct responses was related to the number of years in school (semipartial r(2)= .046). More education is needed about the benefits and recommendations to ensure proper use of current strength-exercise protocols among older adults.

Ethnicity, Education, and Blood Pressure in Cuba

The causes of variation in hypertension risk by ethnicity and educational level are not well understood. To gain further insight into this issue in a nonindustrialized country, a population-based sample of 1,667 persons aged 15-74 years was recruited in Cienfuegos, Cuba. In this 2001-2002 study, interviewers classified 29% of participants as Black or mulatto and 71% as White. Educational attainment was stratified at the median number of school years. Compared with White women, non-White women had higher blood pressures (3.0/1.7, systolic blood pressure/diastolic blood pressure) and a higher prevalence of hypertension (24%, 95% confidence interval: 20, 28 vs. 15%, 95% confidence interval: 12, 18). Among men, no differences in blood pressure were observed by ethnicity. Men with a lower level of education had a 14% lower risk of hypertension compared with men above the median. However, women with a lower level of education had a 24% increase in risk. The effect of education was equally strong among Whites alone and when occupation was used for stratification. No variation was observed for body mass index or self-reported health behaviors by ethnicity or education. The narrower ethnic gradient in hypertension prevalence than seen in North America and the gender-specific social status effect, in the context of relatively equal living conditions, suggest that the influence of psychosocial stressors may be specific to cultural contexts.

Assessing the Optimal Method of Delivering Results After Endoscopic Ultrasound Guided Fine Needle Aspiration of Suspected Pancreatic Cancer

Introduction: The optimal way to deliver results of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) guided fine needle aspiration (FNA) of suspected pancreatic masses is unknown. Some centers receive preliminary results the day of the procedure but only convey final results to patients, and some centers do not receive preliminary results. Our center receives preliminary results, and provides these results to patients in the recovery area of the Endoscopy center prior to discharge. The aims of this study were to 1) learn patients' preference for receiving EUS FNA results, and 2) for patients who receive preliminary results, determine if they remember accurately what they were told. Methods: Consecutive patients referred for EUS FNA for possible pancreatic cancer were prospectively enrolled in the study. A pre-procedure survey assessed patients' knowledge about what test they were having, why they were having it and what they understood about the possible findings, as well as their preference for receiving results. This survey was administered prior to the procedure and prior to a discussion with the endoscopist. Patients were contacted by phone the day after the exam and asked if they remembered what test they had, why they had it, and what findings had been communicated to them the day before. A third survey was administered one week later during the phone call to communicate final cytology results. The survey was administered before the results were given, and asked the same questions as the one-day post procedure survey. Results: 10 women and 12 men were consecutively enrolled in the study. The average age was 65 years. The average number of school years completed was 10. The average pre-procedure anxiety score was 3.15 (0 = not at all, 5 = extremely). 12 of 22 (55%) patients knew they were having a biopsy/sample, 16 of 22 (73%) knew cancer/mass/growth/tumor was suspected. 20 of 22 (91%) wanted preliminary results the same day as the test and final results by phone one week later. 11 of 15 (73%) knew the correct preliminary diagnosis one day post-procedure, and 15 of 18 (83%) knew the correct preliminary diagnosis one week later (before given final results). Conclusions: Most patients referred to our institution for EUS FNA of possible pancreatic cancers prefer to receive preliminary results the same day, and receive final results by phone one week later. The large majority of patients in this study correctly remembered the preliminary diagnosis they were given.

Prediction of marginal bone loss and tooth loss--a prospective study over 20 years.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of potential risk predictors/risk factors on the longitudinal marginal bone loss and tooth loss over 20 years. A clinical and radiographic investigation of a sample of 513 individuals was performed in 1970 and 1990. Stepwise multiple regression analyses were adopted to calculate the influence of the potential risk predictors/risk factors on the longitudinal marginal bone loss and tooth loss. Russell's Periodontal Index in 1970 and smoking were significantly and positively correlated to longitudinal bone loss. Russell's Periodontal Index, marginal bone loss and Plaque Index at baseline were positively and significantly correlated to the longitudinal tooth loss, whilst age, the number of missing teeth in 1970 and the number of school years showed a significant negative correlation to number of teeth lost between 1970 and 1990. Smoking was found to be a significant risk factor in marginal bone loss, while plaque was a risk factor in tooth loss. However, the regression models explained a low percentage of the total variance, especially for marginal bone loss.

Education, Age, and the Brown-Peterson Technique

In this article, we discuss the effects of education level and age on short-term memory. The performance of young and elderly persons was compared on an adapted version of the Brown-Peterson procedure. Participants were asked to report consonant trigrams, after variable time periods, during which they performed a mental addition task or an articulation task. A control condition consisted of a no-interference task. Both age groups were divided according to individual educational level (greater or less than the median number of school years in each age group). The results revealed a significant effect of education. Moreover, the education effect interacted with the task: participants with less education were more impaired in mental addition than in articulation. However, neither the age effect nor the interactions involving age reached significance. These results indicate that education, to a greater extent than age, should be considered a determining factor of performance when interpolated tasks of high demand are used with the Brown-Peterson procedure.

Adolescent Drug Use and Educational Attainment

Recent studies investigating the labor-market effects of illicit drug use have consistently found a positive relation between drug use and earnings. These analyses have, however, ignored the potential relationship between drug use and human-capital formation. This paper examines the effect of drug use during adolescence on formal educational attainment using a sample drawn from the National Longitudinal Survey Youth Cohort. The probability of drug use is estimated across racial groups according to three categories; use of any illicit drug, use including hard drugs, and use of only marijuana. Fitted values for the probability of drug use are calculated and entered into a regression framework to estimate the number of school years completed. The empirical results indicate that all three categories of drug use are associated with significant negative impacts on educational attainment after controlling for individual differences in personal endowments and socioeconomic characteristics. On average, adolescent drug use is found to reduce eventual educational attainment by about 1 year, ceteris paribus . These findings suggest that previous studies that focus only on the direct effects of drug use on earnings may reflect a statistical bias that leads to an overstatement of the positive effects of drug use on earnings.

Effects of Ascribed Status on Educational Attainment

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of ascribed status on individuals' educational attainment. This study differs from the previous research in two ways : 1) It employs a measure of educational attainment that takes into account differentiation of higher education (i.e., university ranking); 2) The parental effect is analyzed at the household level, instead of treating father's and mother's effect separately, by examining the combination of both parents' educational background.The analysis used data from the survey conducted in Tokyo in Nov. 1992, on randomly selected females between 35 and 49 years of age. In accordance with P. Bourdieu' s Reproduction Theory, intergenerational succession of educational attainment was confirmed in the form of school ranking even among those with higher education. However, the association between the parents' education and those of children were not always monotonic. Nonmonotonic associations were observed when the effects of parents were examined using a household-level variable. The results suggest that intergenerational succession of educational attainment carries beyond what we observe simply in the number of years in school.

Different Methods – Different Results: How the Swedish Results in Mathematics Vary Depending on Methodological Approach

The results for TIMSS population 2 in Sweden indicated that Swedish student achievement in mathematics was average. There were even mass media reports that indicated that Swedish students had some of the lowest results in mathematics. The issue that is addressed in this article is whether the performance of Swedish students is average or even low. To answer this, the basis of comparison between the different countries needs to be discussed. Mass media, for example, based its comparison on all 45 countries participating in TIMSS population 2 and in its national TIMSS report, the Swedish National Agency for Education presented a different selection of countries. The report compared the results of the 25 countries that met the sampling requirements set by the TIMSS International Study Centre. This focuses the discussion on what approaches are used when comparing results from different countries in an international comparative study. In this article the TIMSS results, as presented by the Swedish National Agency for Education, are compared with the results obtained with other methodological approaches. The comparison is based on the importance of three variables for the results of the comparison: equal number of years in school, the selection of countries, and the contents of the textbooks in the different countries. The results indicate that the number of years in school, as well as the content of the textbooks in each country, are important factors when comparing the results for different countries.

School performance and intellectual outcome in adolescents with phenylketonuria.

In a retrospective study, 34 treated adolescents with phenylketonuria and their relatives were tested with scale 2 of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT20) and self-developed questionnaire concerning their development in school. The patients also filled in the Anxiety Questionnaire for Children. With an IQ of 93.6, the patients reached a normal mean intellectual performance but this was significantly below the mean IQ of the general population (100, p < 0.01), the IQ of their mothers (98.2, p < 0.05), their fathers (105.4, p < 0.05) and their siblings (110.3, p < 0.05). The patients' IQs correlated significantly with the IQs of their mothers, the socio-economic status of their families, the quality of dietary control since birth and the serum phenylalanine concentration at the moment of testing. With respect to age at which the patients started school, type of school attended and number of school years which had to be repeated, there were no significant differences between the patients and their siblings. The patients did not display a markedly higher degree of general anxiety, nervousness at examination time or a greater reluctance to attend school.

Trends in Gender and Family Background Effects on School Attainment: The Case of Hong Kong

Using household census data from Hong Kong in 1971 1976 1981 and 1986 the authors constructed new individual data sets for 4 separate cohorts of youth. The new data include family background variables and allow the authors to examine the selectivity in education over time. The question of how background and gender affect educational attainment is addressed in 2 complementary ways. They first used linear regressions on the number of school years completed and then logistic regressions to calculate the likelihood of making particular school transitions. Consistent with prior research in the US Hungary and the Philippines the 2 methods yield results which are apparently contradictory. The linear effect of family background and gender on attainment diminished over time suggesting a more open educational system. However the effect of these same variables on the odds of making transitions actually increased at the higher levels. During the 15 year period examined Hong Kong attempted to expand the educational opportunities for its youth. Few nations have provided free and compulsory secondary schooling so shortly after having instituted universal primary education. One might expect rapid educational expansion to lead to a more open educational system as well. In fact while the system did become much more open at both the primary and secondary levels it also became more selective at the higher educational levels. (authors)

The relationship of self-concept to prosocial behavior in children

This paper explores the relationship between a child's self-concept and the prosocial behavior demonstrated by the child. Prosocial behavior included sharing, helping, and cooperative behaviors. The subjects were 52 4- and 5-year-old children, who were observed during free play in their day care centers and were administered the Purdue Self-Concept Scale for Preschool Children. Results indicated a significant correlation between self-concept and cooperative behavior over and above the effects of sex, age, number of siblings, and number of years in school. In addition, cooperative behavior that was self-initiated was more effective than cooperative behavior that was other-initiated. The implications for child rearing and the classroom focus on the dual directional nature of the relationship between self-concept and prosocial behavior.