Number Of Tyrosine Hydroxylase-positive Cells Research Articles

The combined use of thymoquinone and metformin provides more effective neuroprotection in a mouse model of MPTP-induced Parkinson’s disease

Thymoquinone (TQ) is known for its antioxidant properties, and although metformin (MM) is known as an antidiabetic drug, it is suggested that it reduces neurodegeneration. The study aimed to investigate the neuroprotective effects of TQ and MM, particularly when used together, in relation to Parkinson’s disease (PD). In the study, sixty-eight male C57BL/6 mice weighing 25–30 g were divided into five groups as follows: control, MPTP, MPTP+TQ, MPTP+MM, and MPTP+TQ+MM. MM (500 mg/kg, orally) and TQ (5 mg/kg, i.p.) were administered for 21 days. Motor coordination and locomotor activities were evaluated by the pole test. TOS and TAS analyses were conducted to determine oxidative stress levels in the substantia nigra. Dopaminergic degeneration in the substantia nigra was evaluated by analyzing Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH). To evaluate the apoptotic pathway, the expression levels of iNOS, BDNF, Complex 1, Bax, Bcl-2, Cytochrome C, AIF, and Caspase-3 were examined immunohistochemically. Compared to the MPTP-treated group, TQ, MM and MM+TQ treatment provided significant improvement in locomotor activity in mice, significantly increased antioxidant activity, significantly reduced the expression levels of iNOS, Bax, Cytochrome C, Caspase-3, and AIF, significantly increased BDNF, Bcl-2, and Complex 1 expressions, and significantly increased the number of TH positive cells. The separate use of TQ and MM exhibits neuroprotective activity, however, we showed that using TQ and MM in combination may be more effective. This may provide preclinical evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of their combined use for treating PD.

Direct conversion of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells into dopaminergic neurons for Parkinson's disease treatment

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor deficits due to the depletion of nigrostriatal dopamine. Stem cell differentiation therapy emerges as a promising treatment option for sustained symptom relief. In this study, we successfully developed a one-step differentiation system using the YFBP cocktail (Y27632, Forskolin, SB431542, and SP600125) to effectively convert human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) into dopaminergic neurons without genetic modification. This approach addresses the challenge of rapidly and safely generating functional neurons on a large scale. After a 7-day induction period, over 80 % of the cells were double-positive for TUBB3 and NEUN. Transcriptome analysis revealed the dual roles of the cocktail in inducing fate erasure in mesenchymal stem cells and activating the neuronal program. Notably, these chemically induced cells (CiNs) did not express HLA class II genes, preserving their immune-privileged status. Further study indicated that YFBP significantly downregulated p53 signaling and accelerated the differentiation process when Pifithrin-α, a p53 signaling inhibitor, was applied. Additionally, Wnt/β-catenin signaling was transiently activated within one day, but the prolonged activation hindered the neuronal differentiation of hUCMSCs. Upon transplantation into the striatum of mice, CiNs survived well and tested positive for dopaminergic neuron markers. They exhibited typical action potentials and sodium and potassium ion channel activity, demonstrating neuronal electrophysiological activity. Furthermore, CiNs treatment significantly increased the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells and the concentration of dopamine in the striatum, effectively ameliorating movement disorders in PD mice. Overall, our study provides a secure and reliable framework for cell replacement therapy for Parkinson's disease.

L-Theanine alleviates MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease by targeting Wnt/β-catenin signaling mediated by the MAPK signaling pathway

We evaluated the neuroprotective effect of L-theanine in Parkinson's disease and the underlying mechanism focusing on WNT/β-catenin signaling mediated by the MAPK pathway. We treated MPTP-induced SH-SY5Y cells with various concentrations of L-theanine (50, 100, 200, and 500 μg/mL), and we also treated Parkinson's model mice with L-theanine. L-theanine treatment effectively reduced the immunohistochemical hallmarks of Parkinson's disease, particularly Lewy bodies and α-synuclein, and increased the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells. L-theanine also improved the motor dysfunction in MPTP-induced Parkinson's disease model mice as measured by the rotarod test. The levels of several pro-inflammatory mediators that are overexpressed in Parkinson's disease, namely TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, and MAC-1, were reduced following L-theanine treatment, and the levels of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, caspase-3, p53, and PARP-1 were significantly reduced. L-theanine regulated the oxidative stress-related factors SOD-1, GST, and NOX-4 by targeting several proteins related to WNT/β-catenin signaling, i.e., β-catenin, WNT-3a, WNT-5a, TCF1/TCF7, and LEF1, via the MAPK pathway (p-JNK, p-ERK, and p-p38). Our results indicate that L-theanine is neuroprotective and has anti-inflammatory effects that could be beneficial for treating Parkinson's disease.

Dopamine inhibits the expression of proinflammatory cytokines of microglial cells through the formation of dopamine quinone in the mouse striatum

We previously reported that dopamine (DA) attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of proinflammatory cytokines through the formation of DA quinone (DAQ) in murine microglial cell line BV-2 and primary murine microglial cells. To reveal whether DA inhibits the expression of proinflammatory cytokines of microglial cells through the formation of DAQ in the central nervous system (CNS), in this study, we examined the effect of DAQ on LPS-induced mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines in C57BL/6 mouse brain under two experimental conditions: 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) administration and l-dopa/carbidopa administration. Acute MPTP administration reduced the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the substantia nigra, and decreased the level of quinoprotein, an indicator of DAQ formation, in the striatum. Real-time RT-PCR analysis revealed that intraperitoneal administration of LPS increased the mRNA levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor-necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β, in the striatum. These increases were enhanced in MPTP-treated mice. On the other hand, l-dopa/carbidopa administration increased the level of quinoprotein, attenuated the LPS-induced mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokines, and reduced the LPS-induced increase in the number of microglial cells in the striatum. These results suggest that DA attenuate the expression of proinflammatory cytokines in microglia through the formation of DAQ in the CNS.

The effect of water-soluble pristine C60 fullerene on 6-OHDA-induced Parkinson’s disease in rats

Oxidative stress is thought to be one of the mechanisms that leads to the dysfunction and degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis and presumed to be underway during the prodromal phase. Therefore, therapy, which is effective against pre-motor symptoms, might be effective in preventing or delaying the development and progression of Parkinson’s disease. The aim of our study was to investigate the therapeutic efficiency of pristine C60 fullerene aqueous solution (C60FAS) during Parkinson’s disease in rats. The unilateral dopamine deficiency was induced in male Wistar rats (220–250 g) by stereotaxic microinjection of neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 12 μg). C60FAS was injected to rats intraperitoneally daily for 10 days (0.65 mg/kg per day). The percentage of destroyed dopaminergic neurons was determined by the apomorphine test and by IHC staining of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in substantia nigra. We evaluated the rat body weight, the water and food intake, Open Field behavioural test, the level of biochemical antioxidant system, the activity of peritoneal macrophages. Levels of spontaneous and carbachol-stimulated colon motility were estimated by ballonographic method in vivo. C60FAS showed a positive tendency to increase the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the midbrain, which was associated with more profound improvement in apomorphine-rotation behaviour and slight relief of the anxiety level in Open Field test. Furthermore, C60FAS treatment increased the index of stimulated distal colon motor activity while it did not have a significant effect on water content in feces and total gastrointestinal transit time. C60FAS treatment did not affect water intake behaviour or body weight changes while it induced an increase of glutathione level and decrease activity of glutathione peroxidase in the brain as well as an increase in activity of peritoneal macrophages in 6-OHDA-Parkinson’s disease rats. These findings confirmed the potential therapeutic effectiveness of water-soluble pristine C60 fullerene in Parkinson’s disease pathogenesis, though there is ground for caution because of its systemic mild toxic effect.

Chronic Intermittent Access to Alcohol Increases Ca v 1.2 in Dopamine Cells of the Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta

The high comorbidity of alcohol and methamphetamine (Meth) abuse presents unique toxicological endpoints. The serial exposure to chronic alcohol and then a binge model of Meth results in the loss of dopamine cells from the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) with evidence for calcium-mediated excitotoxicity that is absent with either drug alone. The objective of this study is to localize and quantify the regional distribution of the increases in Cav1.2 in the substantia nigra after a chronic alcohol consumption paradigm in Sprague Dawley rats. We hypothesize that increases in Cav1.2 will be primarily in the tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells of the SNpc. Male Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to a 2-bottle choice of water and chronic alcohol (EtOH) consumption model (i.e., 28-day intermittent/every other day access to 10% EtOH). At 24h after the last day of EtOH consumption, 4% PFA was perfused intracardially, brains cryostat sectioned, and TH and Cav1.2 immunoreactivities of the sections were identified. Fluorescence images of the SNpc and Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) were captured at 20x magnification and cells that displayed TH and Cav1.2 co-localized immunoreactivity were hand-counted by an investigator blinded to the treatments. Cav1.2 was co-expressed with 43% of TH positive cells in the SNpc and 66% of TH positive cells in the VTA of control water drinking groups. There was a significant increase (39.3 ± 0.5%, p<0.05) in TH-positive cells with Cav1.2-positive immunoreactivity in the SNpc of EtOH-drinking rats when compared to water drinkers. No such effect was identified with TH-positive cells of the VTA. The total number of TH positive cells did not change in the alcohol drinking group. Western blot analysis of Cav1.2 protein in tissue that contained the SNpc of EtOH-drinking rats also showed increases in Cav1.2 . The localized increase in TH-positive cells of the SNpc, and not the VTA suggests a particular sensitivity of this population of cells to the calcium-mediated events that occurs following the serial exposure to EtOH and Meth.

Effect of electroacupuncture on mitochondrial function in mice with Parkinson's disease

To observe the effect of electroacupuncture (EA) on behavior, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), mitochondrial complexes Ⅰ-Ⅳ, mitochondrial membrane potential and mitochondrial ultrastructure of Parkinson's disease (PD) mice, so as to explore its mechanism underlying improvement of PD. C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into normal, model, medication (Madopar) and EA groups (n=11 in each group). PD model was duplicated by intraperitoneal injection of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP, 30 mg·kg-1·d-1) for consecutively 5 d. EA was performed on the chorea tremor areas on both sides of the head of mice for 15 min, once a day for 14 d. The behavioral changes of mice were observed. The expression of TH in substantia nigra compacta of midbrain was detected by immunohistochemistry. The activities of mitochondrial complexes Ⅰ-Ⅳ were measured. The changes of mitochondrial membrane potential were detected by JC-1 staining method. The ultrastructural changes of striatum mitochondria were observed by transmission electron microscope. After modeling, the mice showed obvious behavioral abnormalities such as tremor, vertical hair and tail warping, and the pole test time in the model group was significantly longer than that in the normal group (P<0.01). After 7 and 14 days of the treatment, the pole test time in the EA and medication groups was shorter than that in the model group (P<0.05，P<0.01). Compared with the normal group, the number of TH positive cells of the substantia nigra, the mitochondrial membrane potential and the activity of mitochondrial complex I were decreased significantly in the model group (P<0.01), and EA and medication intervention reversed these changes (P<0.01). The mitochondrial structure of mice in the model group was obviously damaged, and the damage of mitochondrial structure was alleviated and the number of damaged mitochondria was decreased in the EA and medication groups. EA can protect and promote the recovery of mitochondrial structure and function in MPTP-induced PD mice, which may play a neuroprotective effect on PD mice by improving mitochondrial dysfunction, balancing cell homeostasis and reducing dopaminergic neuron damage.

JM-20 protects against 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neurotoxicity in models of Parkinson’s disease: Mitochondrial protection and antioxidant properties

We have previously shown that JM-20, a new chemical entity consisting of 1,5-benzodiazepine fused to a dihydropyridine moiety, protects against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity in an experimental model of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a novel hybrid molecule, named JM-20, in in vitro and in vivo models of PD induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). PC-12 cells were exposed to 6-OHDA and treated with JM-20. Protection against mitochondrial damage induced by 6-OHDA was also investigated using isolated rat brain mitochondria. We found that JM-20 protected PC-12 cells against cytotoxicity induced by 6-OHDA and inhibited hydrogen peroxide generation, mitochondrial swelling and membrane potential dissipation. For in vivo experiments, adult male Wistar rats were lesioned in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) by 6-OHDA administration. JM-20 was orally administered (10, 20 or 40 mg/kg), intragastric via gavage, 24 h after surgery and daily for seven days. Treatment with JM-20 significantly reduced the percentage of motor asymmetry and increased vertical exploration. It improved the redox state of the SNpc and the striatal tissue of these animals. Also, JM-20 reduced glial fibrillary acidic protein overexpression and increased tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cell number, both in SNpc. Altogether, these results demonstrate that JM-20 is a potential neuroprotective agent against 6-OHDA-induced damage in both in vitro and in vivo models. The mechanism underlying JM-20 neuroprotection against 6-OHDA appears to be associated with the control of oxidative injury and mitochondrial impairment.

Dopamine modulates individual differences in avoidance behavior: A pharmacological, immunohistochemical, neurochemical and volumetric investigation

Avoidance behavior is a hallmark in pathological anxiety disorders and results in impairment of daily activities. Individual differences in avoidance responses are critical in determining vulnerability or resistance to anxiety disorders. Dopaminergic activation is implicated in the processing of avoidance responses; however, the mechanisms underlying these responses are unknown. In this sense, we used a preclinical model of avoidance behavior to investigate the possibility of an intrinsic differential dopaminergic pattern between good and poor performers. The specific goal was to assess the participation of dopamine (DA) through pharmacological manipulation, and we further evaluated the effects of systemic injections of the dopaminergic receptor type 1 (D1 antagonist - SCH23390) and dopaminergic receptor type 2 (D2 antagonist - sulpiride) antagonists in the good performers. Additionally, we evaluated the effects of intra-amygdala microinjection of a D1 antagonist (SCH23390) and a D2 antagonist (sulpiride) in good performers as well as intra-amygdala microinjection of a D1 agonist (SKF38393) and D2 agonist (quinpirole) in poor performers. Furthermore, we quantified the contents of dopamine and metabolites (3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA)) in the amygdala, evaluated the basal levels of tyrosine hydroxylase expression (catecholamine synthesis enzyme) and measured the volume of the substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area and locus coeruleus. Our results showed that it could be possible to convert animals from good to poor performers, and vice versa, by intra-amygdala (basolateral and central nucleus) injections of D1 receptor antagonists in good performers or D2 receptor agonists in poor performers. Additionally, the good performers had lower levels of DOPAC and HVA in the amygdala, an increase in the total volume of the amygdala (AMG), substantia nigra (SN), ventral tegmental area (VTA) and locus coeruleus (LC), and an increase in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in SN, VTA and LC, which positively correlates with the avoidance behavior. Taken together, our data show evidence for a dopaminergic signature of avoidance performers, emphasizing the role of distinct dopaminergic receptors in individual differences in avoidance behavior based on pharmacological, immunohistochemical, neurochemical and volumetric analyses. Our findings provide a better understanding of the role of the dopaminergic system in the execution of avoidance behavior.

Intranigral Injection of Endotoxin Suppresses Proliferation of Hippocampal Progenitor Cells.

Brain inflammation can result in functional disorders observed in several neurodegenerative diseases and that can be also associated with reduced neurogenesis. In this study, we investigate the effect of mild inflammation, induced by unilateral injection of Endotoxin (ET) in the substantia nigra (SN)/Ventral Tegmental Area, on the proliferation and survival of stem/progenitor cells in the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus. Adult female rats received unilateral injection of ET (2 μg/2 μl saline) or sterile saline (2 μl) in the right SN followed by 5′-Bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) injections (66 mg/kg/injection). Intranigral ET injection induced bilateral decrease in the number of newly born BrdU positive cells in the DG. This effect was paralleled by a significant decrease in the exploratory behavior of rats, as assessed by the Y-maze novel arm exploration task. ET also induced a transient decrease in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the injected SN, impaired motor behavior, and caused microglial activation in the SN. This study provides an experimental simulation of the remote effects of moderate and reversible neuroinflammation resulting in impaired communication between midbrain dopaminergic neurons and the hippocampus.

Rosmarinic acid attenuates inflammatory responses through inhibiting HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Inflammation contributes to the pathological processes in patients and animal models of PD. Rosmarinic acid (RA) has been demonstrated to protect neurons in PD models. The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect of RA on PD and reveal possible pharmacological mechanisms. 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) was injected to mice to establish PD model in vivo. BV-2 cells were exposed to 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and α-synuclein to establish PD model in vitro. Results showed that treatment with RA dose-dependently improved motor function of PD mice, increased the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells, reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and inhibited microglia activation in ventral midbrain. In cell study, RA also decreased MPP+ or α-synuclein-induced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, RA treatment downregulated the expression levels of HMGB1, TLR4 and Myd88 and inhibited NF-κB nuclear expression both in PD animal and cell models. These findings indicated that RA could attenuate inflammatory responses through suppressing HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, which may contribute to its anti-PD activity.

Functional surfaces for efficient differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells into dopaminergic neurons.

Various techniques and systems have been reported for the efficient differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells into dopaminergic neurons. Although a comparatively high percentage of dopaminergic neurons can be obtained using these techniques, the differentiated cells display varied cellular phenotypes such as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Generation of highly pure dopaminergic neurons is important for cell-based therapy and in vitro evaluation of dopaminergic neuron function. In this study, we developed a culture surface anchored with several neurotrophic factors and a neuronal cell-adhesive protein for efficient differentiation of neural stem/progenitor cells into dopaminergic neurons. Oligohistidine-fused brain-derived neurotrophic factor and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, synthesized using genetic engineering, were co-immobilized on the surface via metal chelation. To facilitate cell adhesion, a cell-adhesive chimeric protein derived from laminin (LN-G) was also immobilized on the surface. Approximately 40% of the cells cultured for 14 days with these protein-immobilized substrates expressed tyrosine hydroxylase, a marker of dopaminergic neurons, with a three-fold increase in differentiation efficiency than that reported previously. In addition, the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells increased to approximately 80% of the culture after 30 days. These cells secreted dopamine and expressed dopaminergic neuron-specific genes. Interestingly, cell types (glial cells and oligodendrocytes) other than neuronal cells (immature and mature dopaminergic neurons) were not detected on the protein-anchored surface. Our results demonstrate that highly pure dopaminergic neurons can be exclusively obtained using the novel substrate without extra purification steps such as cell sorting. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part A: 107A: 860-871, 2019.

KM-34, a Novel Antioxidant Compound, Protects against 6-Hydroxydopamine-Induced Mitochondrial Damage and Neurotoxicity.

The etiology of Parkinson's disease is not completely understood and is believed to be multifactorial. Neuronal disorders associated to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are widely considered major consequences. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the synthetic arylidenmalonate derivative 5-(3,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxane-4,6-dione (KM-34), in oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Pretreatment (2h) with KM-34 (1 and 10μM) markedly attenuated 6-OHDA-induced PC12 cell death in a concentration-dependent manner. KM-34 also inhibited H2O2 generation, mitochondrial swelling, and membrane potential dissipation after 6-OHDA-induced mitochondrial damage. In vivo, KM-34 treatment (1 and 2mg/Kg) reduced percentage of asymmetry (cylinder test) and increased the vertical exploration (open field) with respect to untreated injured animals; KM-34 also reduced glial fibrillary acidic protein overexpression and increased tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cell number, both in substantia nigra pars compacta. These results demonstrate that KM-34 present biological effects associated to mitoprotection and neuroprotection in vitro, moreover, glial response and neuroprotection in SNpc in vivo. We suggest that KM-34 could be a putative neuroprotective agent for inhibiting the progressive neurodegenerative disease associated to oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Effect of Shouwu Shudi Yin on dopaminegic neurons in MPTP induced Parkinson's disease mouse model

In order to investigate the effect of Shouwu Shudi Yin on dopaminegic neurons in MPTP induced Parkinson's disease mouse model and the possible mechamism, the experimental mice were randomly divided into 4 groups: control, Shouwu Shudi Yin, MPTP and the treatment (MPTP+Shouwu Shudi Yin) groups. The number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) positive cells in the substantia nigra was measured by immunohistochemistry, and mRNA expression of TH and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) were detected by PCR. The results showed that the number of TH positive cells and mRNA expression of TH were significantly reduced in MPTP group compared with the control (P<0.05), and pretreated with Shouwu Shudi Yin didn't show protective effect. Compared to MPTP group, the mRNA expression of four subtypes of GPX were increased in various degrees in the treatment group pretreated with Shouwu Shudi Yin, although the difference was not statistically significant. These indicated that the preventive medication of Shouwu Shudi Yin don't have protective effect on the mice with Parkinson' s disease induced by MPTP, but it may enhance the antioxidant capacity through increasing the expression of GPX.

Tetranectin gene deletion induces Parkinson's disease by enhancing neuronal apoptosis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). We previously identified tetranectin (TET) as a potential biomarker for PD whose expression is downregulated in the cerebrospinal fluid of PD patients. In the present study, we investigate the role of TET in neurodegeneration in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that siRNA knockdown of TET decreased cell viability and the number of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) positive cells, whereas it increased caspase-3 activity and the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio in cultured primary dopaminergic neurons. Overexpression of TET protected dopaminergic neurons against neuronal apoptosis in 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium cell culture model in vitro. In TET knockdown mouse model of PD, TET gene deletion decreased the number of TH positive cells in the SNpc, induced apoptosis via the p53/Bax pathway, and significantly impaired the motor behavior of transgenic mice. The findings suggest that TET plays a neuroprotective role via reducing neuron apoptosis and could be a valuable biomarker or potential therapeutic target for the treatment of patients with PD.

Neuroprotective effects of piperine on the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced Parkinson's disease mouse model.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is second only to Alzheimer's disease as the most common and debilitating age-associated neurodegenerative disorder. Currently, no therapy has been shown to unequivocally retard or arrest the progression of the disease. The aim of the present study was to investigate the protective effect of piperine on the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6‑tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced Parkinson's mouse model. For MPTP treatment, the animals received repeated intraperitoneal injections (i.p.) of MPTP (30 mg/kg) solution for 7 days. Piperine (10 mg/kg) was administered orally for 15 days including 8 days of pretreatment. Motor behavior analysis was conducted with the rotarod test. The Morris water maze (MWM) was used to assess the cognitive learning ability of the mice. A histological examination was subsequently conducted. The results ddemonstrate that piperine treatment attenuated MPTP-induced deficits in motor coordination and cognitive functioning. Piperine also prevented MPTP-induced decreases in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the substantia nigra. Additionally, piperine reduced the number of activated microglia, expression of cytokine IL-1β, and oxidative stress following MPTP treatment. An anti-apoptotic property of piperine was identified by maintaining the balance of Bcl-2/Bax. In conclusion, the results show that piperine exerts a protective effect on dopaminergic neurons via antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms in an MPTP-induced mouse model of PD. Thus, piperine is a potential therapeutic treatment for PD.

Pre- and postnatal bisphenol A treatment does not alter the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells in the anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) of weanling male and female rats

Exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA) may interfere with brain sexual differentiation. Altered numbers of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) cells in the rodent anteroventral periventricular nucleus (AVPV) after developmental BPA treatment have been reported; however, definitive conclusions are lacking. The current study incorporated many of the guidelines suggested for endocrine disrupter research. Specifically, ethinyl estradiol (EE2) served as a reference estrogen, exogenous environmental estrogen exposure was controlled, BPA was administered orally, and subjects consumed a low phytoestrogen diet. Here, on gestational days 6–21, Sprague-Dawley rats (10–15/group) were gavaged with 2.5 or 25.0µg BPA/kg/day or 5.0 or 10.0µg EE2/kg/day or the vehicle (5ml of 0.3% aqueous carboxymethylcellulose/kg/day). A naïve control group was weighed and restrained, but not gavaged. Beginning on postnatal day (PND) 1 and continuing until PND 21, the 4 pups/sex/litter were orally treated with the same dose their dam had received. On PND 21, 1/sex/litter was perfused and the brain removed. TH immunoreactivity (TH-ir) was counted in 8 images/pup by a technician blind to treatment status. ANOVA results indicated significantly higher TH-ir cells/mm2 in females (main effect of sex: p<0.01); however, there was no significant effect of treatment or a significant interaction of treatment with sex. In a separate untreated group of PND 21 Sprague-Dawley pups, AVPV volume was quantified and no significant sexual dimorphism was apparent. Similar to our reported results of behavioral assessments, the BPA treatment paradigm used here (2.5 or 25.0µg BPA/kg/day administered orally) does not appear to cause significant alterations in AVPV TH-ir.

Expression of Tyrosine Hydroxylase in the Anterior Lobe of the Human Pituitary Gland: A Possible Local Autocrine/Paracrine Role in the Regulation of Pituitary Hormone Secretion

The main source of dopamine (DA) regulating anterior pituitary function is derived from the hypothalamic tuberoinfundibular (TIDA) neurons. Recent studies performed on mice have indicated the presence of a local source of DA because tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate‐limiting enzyme of DA biosynthesis, has been found within the AL. Here, we provide evidence for the presence of TH in human cadaveric pituitary glands. The presence of TH is a good indicator of an intrinsic or local production of DA. Serial axial sections of pituitary glands obtained from two (70 and 87 year old) male cadavers have been histologically prepared and stained with hematoxylin‐eosin (HE) and immunohistochemistry has been performed using specific antibodies for TH. TH immunoreactivity has been found in the AL of both pituitaries. Similar to the AL of the mouse, TH positive cells have been localized bilaterally, at the border of the intermediate lobe (IL) and the AL. Incidentally, a distinct area in the left side of the AL of one of the pituitary glands has been found avoiding HE staining, which indicates a proliferation of cells forming an adenoma called “incidentaloma”. Curiously, an increased number of TH immunoreactive cells have been found in the area of the incidentaloma compared to the normal AL tissue of the same gland. The increased number of TH positive cells within the incidentaloma and the asymptomatic nature of it may suggest a compensatory elevation of local production of DA for being able to inhibit hormone secretion of the adenoma in an autocrine/paracrine manner. Therefore, a new mechanism of DAergic control of pituitary hormone secretion locating within the AL of the human pituitary gland can be hypothesized.

Endometrial stem cell transplantation in MPTP- exposed primates: an alternative cell source for treatment of Parkinson's disease.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Cell-replacement therapies have emerged as a promising strategy to slow down or replace neuronal loss. Compared to other stem cell types, endometrium-derived stem cells (EDSCs) are an attractive source of stem cells for cellular therapies because of their ease of collection and vast differentiation potential. Here we demonstrate that endometrium-derived stem cells may be transplanted into an MPTP exposed monkey model of PD. After injection into the striatum, endometrium-derived stem cells engrafted, exhibited neuron-like morphology, expressed tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and increased the numbers of TH positive cells on the transplanted side and dopamine metabolite concentrations in vivo. Our results suggest that endometrium-derived stem cells may provide a therapeutic benefit in the primate model of PD and may be used in stem cell based therapies.

Orally delivered water soluble Coenzyme Q10 (Ubisol-Q10) blocks on-going neurodegeneration in rats exposed to paraquat: potential for therapeutic application in Parkinson’s disease

BackgroundParaquat, still used as an herbicide in some parts of the world, is now regarded as a dangerous environmental neurotoxin and is linked to the development Parkinson’s disease (PD). Paraquat interacts with cellular redox systems and causes mitochondrial dysfunction and the formation of reactive oxygen species, which in turn, plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of PD. Various antioxidant therapies have been explored with the expectations that they deliver health benefits to the PD patients, however, no such therapies were effective. Here we have tested the neuroprotective efficacy of a novel water-soluble CoQ10 (Ubisol-Q10), in a rat model of paraquat-induced neurodegeneration in order to evaluate its potential application in the management of PD.ResultsWe have developed a rat model of progressive nigrostriatal degeneration by giving rats five intraperitoneal injections of paraquat (10 mg/kg/injection), once every five days. Neuronal death occurred over a period of 8 weeks with close to 50% reduction in the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive cells. Ubisol-Q10, at 6 mg CoQ10/kg body weight/day, was delivered as a supplement in drinking water. The intervention begun after the completion of paraquat injections when the neurodegenerative process had already began and about 20% of TH-positive neurons were lost. Ubisol-Q10 treatment halted the progression of neurodegeneration and remaining neurons were protected. The outcomes were evaluated based on the number of surviving tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the substantia nigra region and improved motor skills in response to the Ubisol-Q10 intervention. To maintain this neuroprotection, however, continuous Ubisol- Q10 supplementation was required, if withdrawn, the neuronal death pathway resumed, suggesting that the presence of CoQ10 was essential for blocking the pathway.ConclusionThe CoQ10, given orally as Ubisol-Q10 in drinking solution, was effective in blocking the progression of neurodegeneration when administered therapeutically (post-toxin injection), at a much lower concentration than other previously tested oil soluble formulations and well within the acceptable daily intake of 12 mg/kg/day. Such unprecedented neuroprotection has never been reported before. These results are very encouraging and suggest that Ubisol-Q10 should be further tested and developed as a therapy for halting the progression of PD.