Numbers Of Stable Flies Research Articles

A push-pull strategy to suppress stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae) attacks on pasture cattle via a coconut oil fatty acid repellent formulation and traps with m-cresol lures.

Stable flies [Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)] are economically important pests of cattle and other livestock. As an alternative to conventional insecticides, we tested a push-pull management strategy using a coconut oil fatty acid repellent formulation and an attractant-added stable fly trap. In our field trials we found that weekly applications of a push-pull strategy can reduce stable fly populations on cattle as well as a standard insecticide (permethrin). We also found that the efficacy periods of the push-pull and permethrin treatments following on-animal application were equivalent. Traps with an attractant lure used as the pull component of the push-pull strategy captured sufficient numbers of stable flies to reduce on-animal numbers by an estimated 17-21%. This is the first proof-of-concept field trial demonstrating the effectiveness of a push-pull strategy using a coconut oil fatty acid-based repellent formulation and traps with an attractant lure to manage stable flies on pasture cattle. Also notable is that the push-pull strategy had an efficacy period equivalent to that of a standard, conventional insecticide under field conditions. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Behavioral Responses of Tabanidae and Stomoxys calcitrans to Unbaited and Baited Nzi and Horse Pal Traps in Southern Sweden

The distribution and species diversity of tabanids and stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans Linnaeus, 1758, in the research area, Hästhult (wood pasture) in Sweden, as well as the behavioral responses of biting flies to visual and olfactory cues were highlighted by this study. Beyond the control of tabanids and stable flies through the Nzi and Horse Pal traps that act as a surrogate host, this study sought to demonstrate the attractiveness of biting flies to these traps by comparing the results of the two periods in which the traps were unbaited and baited. The odor attractants, such as urine (a mixture of more than phenol) and acetone used to increase trap yields, made the difference to the Horse Pal and Nzi traps for S. calcitrans (L) because the number of flies caught was significantly higher. Through this study, Nzi trap with bait and Horse Pal trap with and without bait were tested for the first time as regards the tabanids and S. calcitrans (L) in Scandinavia. Surprisingly, the number of tabanids caught in the Nzi trap was equal in both situations with or without bait. The result underlined the idea that the Nzi trap manages to catch a large number of tabanids even in the absence of attractants. It turns out that the Horse Pal trap was just as effective with and without bait in capturing tabanids. Furthermore, the number of tabanids caught in both traps depended on the type of weather, and the number of stable flies depended on the weather and also the type of trap. The results of this study showed that both the visual and olfactory aspects of the Nzi and Horse Pal traps are always essential, being used successfully in the control of biting flies and optimized for various research purposes.

Short communication: Effects of mesh leggings on fly pressure and fly avoidance behaviors of pastured dairy cows

Ectoparasitic stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans [L.]), horn flies (Haematobia irritans [L.]), and face flies (Musca autumnalis De Geer) negatively affect dry matter intake, milk production, and health of pastured dairy cows. These flies cause fly avoidance behaviors and are a major welfare concern for dairy producers. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of mesh Shoofly Leggins (Stone Manufacturing & Supply, Kansas City, MO) on fly avoidance behaviors and numbers of flies attacking pastured dairy cows. In a crossover design, lactating dairy cows (n = 80) were randomly assigned to groups with and without leggings (Shoofly Leggins worn on all legs). All cows were managed in one group. Cows were observed for 2-wk periods, and then treatments were reversed in the next 2-wk interval. Counts of stable flies, horn flies, and face flies on all cows were recorded twice daily (once in morning per cow: 0930 to 1230 h; and once in the afternoon per cow: 1330 to 1630 h), 3 times per wk on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of each week during the study period. The total number of flies per cow was greater on cows with leggings than cows without leggings. The number of horn flies per cow was greater on cows in with leggings (26.4 flies/side) compared with cows without leggings (24.1 flies/side). Stable fly numbers were similar for cows with and without leggings (12.8 flies/leg). A random subset of 20 focal cows per group was observed during 5-min intervals to record frequencies of 4 behaviors: leg stomps, head tosses, skin twitches, and tail swishes. Counts of head tosses (2.6 vs. 3.1), skin twitches (20.9 vs. 19.6), and tail swishes (21.3 vs. 19.3) were similar for cows without leggings versus cows with leggings, respectively. However, foot stomps were 39% lower for cows with leggings compared with cows without leggings, and leg stomps were 26% higher in the afternoon than in the morning (2.9 vs. 2.4, respectively). A positive correlation was observed between stable and horn flies and all insect avoidance behaviors. Numbers of stable flies were 1.5 times greater in the afternoon than in the morning. The results of this study indicated that flies were associated with cow fly avoidance behaviors regardless of the use of leggings, but leggings effectively reduced foot stomps by 39%, so their use may provide some relief from stable fly injury to pastured dairy cows.

The influence of stable fly invasion on the behavior of captive black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

To determine the effect of stable fly invasion on the state of captive animals, we investigated the fly abundance and related behavioral responses of captive black rhinoceroses before and after the use of pesticide. Two black rhinoceroses in the Kamine Zoo were used as the subjects. We compared the number of stable flies on their bodies, repelling behavior, and maintenance behavior under normal husbandry conditions (control) and after pesticide application (debug). The number of stable flies decreased by nearly 80% under the debug condition compared with the control. Stable flies were observed most frequently on the bellies of the rhinoceroses, and the largest decrease in the number of flies after pesticide application was observed on the animals' backs. The frequency of the rhinoceroses’ repelling responses also decreased, by an average of nearly 60%, after the debug treatment compared with the control. Time allocation to the maintenance behaviors of standing rest and lying rest increased significantly, by 5%-10%, under the debug condition for both rhinoceroses. On the other hand, the time allocation to walking decreased significantly, by approximately 9%-13%, in both rhinoceroses with pesticide application. These results suggest that fly invasion drastically disrupted rhinoceros behavior, and that it likely poses a severe burden in zoo animals during the fly season.

Can Attractive Sticky Traps Be Used to Protect Horses From the Bites of Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae).

The stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), is a bloodsucking ectoparasite that causes irritation and distress to livestock, wildlife, and humans. Both sexes are vicious blood-feeders that feed on a variety of animals. Optically attractive sticky traps have been used to capture stable flies, and some companies claim that sticky traps can protect animals from the bites of stable flies. To further investigate the protective ability of sticky traps, Home and Garden Mosquito (HGM) traps were selected for evaluations at the University of Florida Horse Teaching Unit (HTU). Broodmares coated with fluorescent dust were either tethered to a post in the center of a paddock or released untethered into a paddock. HGM sticky traps were placed at the four compass points and four selected distances from the paddock center to capture stable flies before (unmarked) or after (marked) they visited the horses. More than 40% of flies captured on traps placed closest to the horses were marked. This indicates that the traps did not prevent the flies from visiting the horses. A percentage of marked and unmarked stable flies showed signs of blood in their guts indicating recent feeding. For unknown reasons, the number of stable flies marked with Signal Green dust exceeded the numbers marked with other colors. Although the HGM traps caught ample numbers of stable flies, the traps did not prevent stable flies from feeding on the horses. More work is needed to determine optimal trap placement and densities required to maximize stable fly management with traps.

Blue and Black Cloth Targets: Effects of Size, Shape, and Color on Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Attraction.

Stable fly management is challenging because of the fly's dispersal behavior and its tendency to remain on the host only while feeding. Optically attractive traps have been used to survey and sometimes reduce adult populations. Insecticide-treated blue and black cloth targets developed for tsetse fly management in Africa were found to be attractive to stable flies in the United States, and various evaluations were conducted in Louisiana and Florida. Tests using untreated targets were designed to answer questions about configuration, size, and color relative to efficacy and stability in high winds. Studies with electric grid targets and with targets paired with Olson traps showed cloth target color attraction in the following decreasing order: black > blue-black > blue. A solid black target is easier to make than a blue-black target because no sewing is involved. Attraction was not affected when flat 1-m2 targets were formed into cylinders, despite the limited view of the blue and black colors together. There was no reduction in attraction when the 1-m2 cylindrical targets were compared with smaller (63 × 30 cm high) cylindrical targets. In addition, there was no difference in attraction between the small blue-black, blue, and black targets. Significance of findings and implications of potential uses for treated targets are discussed. Target attraction was indicated by the numbers of stable flies captured on an Olson sticky trap placed 30 cm from the target. Although this system is adequate for field research, it greatly underestimates the actual numbers of stable flies attracted to treated targets.

Evidence for Sticky-Trap Avoidance by Stable Fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae), in Response to Trapped Flies.

Populations of stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans, and other filth flies are often sampled using sticky traps. We wanted to know whether flies already caught on sticky traps might inhibit to some extent subsequent flies from being caught. To test this, we recorded the number of stable flies landing on white plastic corrugated panels (Coroplast®), which were prepared according to 4 treatments: 12 live stable flies glued to the surface, 12 live house flies (Musca domestica) glued to the surface, 12 black dots, and no treatment. From 160 observations, we found that fewer stable flies landed on panels with either attached stable flies (129) or house flies (133) compared with the number landing on panels with black dots (259) and/or with no treatment (210). This apparent inhibitory effect of trapped flies may explain published trap-catch patterns from field studies.

Predicting nuisance fly outbreaks on cattle feedlots in subtropical Australia

Flies are important arthropod pests in intensive animal facilities such as cattle feedlots, with the potential to cause production loss, transmit disease and cause nuisance to surrounding communities. In the present study, seasonal population dynamics of three important nuisance flies, namely house flies (Musca domestica L.), bush flies (M. vetustissima Walker) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), were monitored on cattle feedlots in south-eastern Queensland, Australia, over 7 years. Musca domestica was by far the dominant species, comprising 67% of the total flies trapped. Models were developed to assess the relationship between weather parameters and fly abundance and to determine whether population trends could be predicted to improve the timing of control measures. For all three species, there were two main effects, namely time-of-year (mainly reflected by minimum temperatures and solar radiation) and rainfall. The abundance of all three species increased with increasing temperature and rainfall, reaching a peak in summer, before decreasing again. Rainfall events resulted in significantly elevated numbers of M. domestica for up to 5 weeks, and for 1 week for M. vetustissima. Peak fly numbers were predicted by the model to occur in spring and summer, following 85–90-mm weekly rainfall. The population dynamics of S. calcitrans were least influenced by rainfall and it was concluded that weather variables were of limited use for forecasting stable fly numbers in this environment and production system. The models provide a useful tool for optimising the timing of fly-control measures, such as insecticide or biopesticide applications, adding to the efficiency of integrated control programs.

Stable fly (Stomoxys calcitrans) and house fly (Musca domestica) densities: a comparison of three monitoring methods on pig farms

House flies (Musca domestica L.) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans [L.]) are important pests on livestock farms and often occur in mixed populations. In order to identify when control actions must be taken, monitoring is essential. The two fly species should be monitored independently as they affect animals differently and may also differ in their responses to control measures. Here, we assess three monitoring methods on pig farms with mixed population of stable and house flies for quantifying fly abundance: spot cards, sticky traps, and a visual index. We compared estimated values from the spot card and a visual index method, which did not discriminate between fly species, with the number of each species caught on the sticky traps. Our results indicate that stable flies contribute less than half of the spots on the spots cards, compared with house flies. Thus, to monitor house flies, use of spot cards could be justified if the number of stable flies is low. However, the contribution of stable flies and house flies to the visual index differed between sites. Whether the visual index or sticky traps best represent the true fly densities is unknown. However, until proved otherwise, the visual index should primarily be used when the two species are registered separately. Threshold values for house fly control, as defined using spot cards (Pennsylvania, USA) versus visual index (Denmark), were compared and found to differ. Although this might be due to differences in tolerance between the two locations, unequal use of monitoring methods and differences between farms is also possible and highlights the need for a common monitoring technique for house flies internationally.

Assessing pest control using changes in instantaneous rate of population increase: Treated targets and stable fly populations case study

The instantaneous rate of population increase was used to assess the ability of attractive targets coated with permethrin to control stable fly populations on 3 dairy farms in south central Ontario, Canada. Two attractive targets were deployed over 10 wk in 2001 at each of 6 dairy farms. Three farms were outfitted with 2 untreated targets and 3 were outfitted with 2 targets treated with permethrin [Ectiban-impregnated Coroplast (Ectiban: Schering-Plough Canada Inc., Pointe-Claire, Québec, Canada; Coroplast: Great Pacific Enterprises Inc., Granby, Québec, Canada)]. Population growth rate was measured in terms of degree-days above a 10°C developmental threshold (rDD10). The rDD10 at the 3 treated dairy farms were significantly lower than rDD10 at the 3 neighboring untreated dairy farms (mean rDD10: treated=0.0088, untreated=0.013), but not in the previous year when targets were not installed (mean rDD10: treated=0.012, untreated=0.015). This supports a long-term approach to management that lowers population growth rates in those regions where stable fly numbers increase exponentially from spring until winter, by shortening the period of economic impact of this pest.

Behavioural responses of dairy cattle to the stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans, in an open field environment

Individual cows (25 in each of four herds) were monitored 8-10 times weekly for 12 weeks (stable fly season) on a southern California dairy, with 100 observations per cow. The numbers of biting stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) on the front legs and the frequencies of four fly-repelling behaviours per 2-min observation period [head throws, front leg stamps, skin twitches (panniculus reflex) and tail flicks] were recorded. Fly numbers varied, peaking at 3.0-3.5 flies per leg in week 9 (late May). Weekly herd mean frequencies of fly-repelling behaviours were highly dependent on fly numbers, with a linear regression r(2) > 0.8. Head throws and stamps were less frequent than skin twitches and tail flicks. Individual cows differed in numbers of stable flies and behaviours. Behaviours were correlated with flies for individual cows, but at a lower level than were herd means (r = 0.3-0.7). Cows that stamped more within a herd tended to have lower fly counts; other fly-repelling behaviours were less effective. Cows maintained ranks within a herd with regard to fly numbers (r = 0.47), head throws (0.48), leg stamps (0.64), skin twitches (0.69) and tail flicks (0.64). Older cows tended to harbour higher fly numbers and to stamp less relative to younger adult cows. Ratios of leg stamps and head throws to fly numbers dropped significantly through time, suggesting habituation to pain associated with fly biting. Tail flicks were not effective for repelling Stomoxys, but were easiest to quantify and may help in monitoring pest intensity. At this low-moderate fly pressure, no consistent impacts on milk yield were detected, but methods incorporating cow behaviour are recommended for future studies of economic impact.

Large Sticky Traps for Capturing House Flies and Stable Flies in Dairy Calf Greenhouse Facilities

Large sticky traps were evaluated for stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), and house fly, Musca domestica L., (Diptera: Muscidae) capture under field conditions in 5 dairy calf greenhouse facilities in New York. The farm with the highest stable fly capture had the highest house fly capture, and the farm with the lowest stable fly capture had the lowest house fly capture, suggesting that fly management practices greatly influenced trap captures. In general, stable fly populations, as reflected by increased trap capture, generally rose during the summer. Numbers of flies counted on calves did not increase, however, suggesting that the traps greatly reduced the potential stable fly pressure on the calves as the fly population increased. Estimated number of stable flies and house flies captured during this 10-wk study exceeded 142,000 and 900,000, respectively. Producers were generally pleased with the trap performance and most felt that these traps reduced flies in their calf greenhouses to acceptable levels.

Effects of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on weight gains of grazing yearling cattle.

Differences in weight gains caused by stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), on grazing yearling steer/calves averaged 0.2 kg per steer in a 3-yr study on canyon range pastures in West Central Nebraska, Stable fly numbers averaged 0.85 per front leg on treated calves and 3.64 per front leg on control calves. In 2 of the 3 yr after the grazing trials were completed, the calves were placed in a feedlot and fed a finishing ration. Compensatory gain did not occur in the feedlot after the stable fly stress was removed.

Stomoxys calcitrans (L.): Preferência por regiões do corpo de eqüinos para alimentação

To study which anatomic parts of horses are preferred by the stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans, for feeding, three males and two females were exposed to natural infestations in Espirito Santo do Pinhal County, Sao Paulo State, Brazil. The number of stable flies were weekly registered in six anatomic areas (head, neck, thorax, thoracic and pelvic members and abdomen) from May 1993 to April 1995. Significant differences were observed among infested areas and stable flies prefer the thoracic members for feeding. Within the thoracic members the shin region was more preferred.

Permethrin-Impregnated Yarn: Longevity of Efficacy and Potential Use on Cylindrical Fiberglass Stable Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Traps

Efficacy of permethrin-impregnated orlon yam against stable flies, Stomoxys Calcitrans (L.), was 6-8 wk under simulated field conditions. Numbers of stable flies captured on corrugated cylindrical fiberglass traps painted with an adhesive indicated that these traps are attractive enough to be used in the field with treated yam applied. Reasons for variability of yam impregnation and the use of yam on cylinder traps are discussed.

Effects of Weather on Capture of Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) by Alsynite Fiber Glass Traps 1

Clear fiber glass panels have been extensively used for constructing traps for stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.). Numbers of stable flies trapped on clear Alsynite fiber glass panels, covered with plastic film and adhesive, during 1-h periods at cattle feedlots, were related to concurrent measurements of air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, and wind speed. Temperature appeared to have greater effect on the trap collections than other weather variables, with maximum responses occurring between 25 and 31°C. Increasing radiation and increasing relative humidity both increased trap collections. Wind speed had no detectable effect. The differing effect of radiation on trap collections and on feeding activity of stable flies may account for previously noted differences between trap counts and counts of feeding flies for estimating population size.

Effectiveness of Williams traps in reducing the numbers of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae).

Williams traps reduced the numbers of Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) at Taronga Zoo, Sydney, Australia, by 79.2% in 7.5 days. This was achieved at an average rate of reduction of 26.1% of the adult population removed per day.

Aerial Application of Insecticides To Control Flies At Feedlots, 1970-76

Abstract ULV and LV aerial applications by fixedwing and rotary blade aircraft were evaluated for control of stable and house flies at feedlots in Nebraska. Fly counts were taken ca 24 hr pre and posttreatment. Stable fly numbers were determined by counting the flies on the inside of 1 front leg and the outside of the other on a minimum of 50 cattle per lot. The resultant number was termed "flies per leg". House flies were counted by the Scudder Grid method (average high 5 of 10 counts of flies landing on grid in 30 sec). Flights were made at temperatures above 80° F and when wind velocity was below 10 MPH. Helicopter flights were made at altitudes of 35 ft and at 45 MPH. Fixed-wing flights were made at altitudes of 25 ft and at 80 MPH.

Aerial ULV and LV applications of insecticides for control of the stable fly and the horn fly.

Low-volume application of dichlorvos to dairy farms by fixed-wing aircraft resulted in decreases in the numbers of stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), which ranged from 30 to 60% 24 hours posttreatment. Low-volume applications of naled by both helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft at feedlots resulted in decreases of stable fly numbers, which ranged from 77.9 to 92% and 30.8 to 94.3%, respectively, 24 hours posttreatment. Ultra-low-volume (ULV) applications at feedlots by fixed-wing aircraft of naled, fenthion, dichlorvos, and a mixture of dichlorvos and Shell SD-8447 (2-chloro-1-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) vinyl dimethyl phosphate) resulted in decreases in stable fly numbers, which averaged 78.4, 75.1, 85.8, and 75.9%, respectively, 24 hours posttreatment. ULV applications of fenthion, trichlorfon, malathion, and naled by fixed-wing aircraft resulted in a reduction of 90% or more in the numbers of horn flies on range cattle. Five aerial ULV applications of naled within 62 days were not enough to keep horn fly, Haematobia irritans (L.), numbers on range cattle below 50 per animal.

The Number of Stable Flies in Norwegian Barns, and Their Resistance to DDT1

By taking regular observations on the number of house flies (Musca domestiea L.), stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) and Fannia species in barns of eastern Norway, it has been shown that stable flies make up a large part of the fly population during the summer months. Of 5954 flies observed in 11 barns during the summers of 1956 and 1957, 74.5% were stable flies, 15.3% house flies and 10.2% Fannia species. Four field-collected strains of stable flies showed differences of up to 5 to 6 times in their tolerance to DDT and lindane, when exposed to blotting paper treated with each of the insecticides. A higher level of resistance to DDT was built up in the laboratory by selecting one of the strains for this insecticide. After two laboratory generations the exposure time required to kill or knock down 50% of the flies (LT50) increased from 312 to 1440 minutes in the females, and from 78 to 918 minutes in the males. At the same time the LT50 for females from an unselected strain decreased from 312 to 78 minutes. Because of difficulties in the rearing technic some of the data were based on a low number of flies, and the cultures had to he discontinued after two laboratory generations.