Number Of Slaves Research Articles

조선시대 筆巖書院의 운영과 재정

Piram-seowon is one of Korea’s representative academies included in ‘Seowon, Neo-confucian Academies of Korea’, which was inscribed in World Heritage List in 2019. Piram-seowon was recognized as Outstanding Universal Value in that it retains a variety of data that can be used to understand the operation and finances of the Seowon in the late Joseon Dynasty. The Wonim(board of directors) of Piram-seowon consisted of the Wonjang(director), Won-yi(deputy director), Jangeui(manager), Seakjang (manager), and Yusa(manger). Among these, the director was appointed as a representative of Neo-Confucian scholars or high-ranking official in the Joseong Society. Local officials were in charge of the Won-yi and Jangeui. Other members were generally elected by literati residing near Jangseong. Piram-seowon has 30 Wonseang(students) recognized by the government, plus additional students. In a seowon, activities centered on ritual rites and lectures are confirmed centered on the Wonim and Wonseang. The guestbook, which has been recorded since the mid-17th century, contains a list of about 3,000 people, allowing the region and origin of those who visited Piram-seowon to be confirmed in detail. The main pillars of Piram-seowon in terms of financial management were slaves and farmland. The slaves show the unique operating method of Piram-seowon, and a representative example is the record of the family relationships of the slaves centered on the maternal line. The number of slaves at Piram-seowon was around 30 since the late 18th century. In the case of fields, the level of tax exemption was consistently maintained at around 3.23ha. Based on finances comprised of slave and farmland, the expenditures of the Piram-seowon were carried out within the scope of income. In addition, the finances of the seowon were secured through various donations.

SPI Master Slave Communication

The serial-peripheral interface (SPI) protocol also called asynchronous serial interface specification is used for communication between single master and single/multiple slaves. With the increase in number of slaves causing high complexity of circuit creates a demand in self-test ability feature for SPI module in order to test for fault free circuits. Built-In-Self-Test (BIST) in the answer for self-test in circuits as well as it helps in reduction of maintenance and testing cost. Design of BIST embedded SPI module with single master and single slave configuration has been introduced in these paper, Here 8-bit is transferred across the module, Where the Circuit under Test (CUT) is being Self-Tested with BIST feature for its correctness. This SPI module is designed using Verilog hardware description language(HDL) using EDA playground platform for application like applications specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or system on chip (SOC). SPI stands for the Serial Peripheral Interface. It is a serial communication protocol that is used to connect low-speed devices. It was developed by Motorola in the mid-1980 for inter-chip communication. It is commonly used for communication with flash memory, sensors, real-time clock (RTC), analog-to-digital converters, and more. It is a full-duplex synchronous serial communication, which means that data can be simultaneously transmitted from both directions. The main advantage of the SPI is to transfer the data without any interruption. Many bits can be sent or received at a time in this protocol. In this protocol, devices are communicated in the master-slave relationship. The master device controls the slave device, and the slave device takes the instruction from the master device. The simplest configuration of the Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a combination of a single slave and a single master. But, one master device can control multiple slave devices

Research on Communication of PROFIBUS Single-master System

Through the understanding of PROFIBUS-DP bus protocol, this paper analyzes the communication process according to the communication principle of fieldbus, establishes a communication model of single-master system, and studies the relationship between target token cycle time, packet loss rate and number of slaves.

“Slavery 1.0”: the Concept of the Ancient Oriental Slave-Owning Societies in the Works by Vassiliy Struve of 1933—1934 and Its Perspective

The article presents a detailed analysis of arguments forwarded by a leading Soviet Orientalist Vassiliy Struwe (1889—1965) for his thesis about the existence of the slave-owning mode of production at the Ancient Orient. This thesis was formulated in his lecture at the State Academy for the History of Material Culture (GAIMK) on 4 June 1933 and in a number of publications of 1934. Backing this thesis with the Ancient Near Eastern evidence and building around it a rather vast scheme positioned as an alternative to the cyclist theory of Eduard Meyer was a realization of tasks put before Struwe at his job at GAIMK, as can be seen from the preserved plan of his work there for the year 1933. According to Struwe’s scheme, the evolution of slavery in the earliest irrigation societies of Egypt and Mesopotamia started with the collective property of rural communities on slaves employed in the build-up of the irrigation systems (canals, dams etc.). There eventually developed the individual property on slaves and the vast slave-owning latifundia, which have already existed in Mesopotamia under Ur-III and in the New Kingdom Egypt. In the 1st Millennium B. C. the development of slavery in Mesopotamia and Egypt was comparable with that in the societies of Classical Antiquity. Struwe pointed out a number of slaves’ uprisings at the Ancient Near East starting from the 2nd Millennium B. C. and explained the downfall of ancient societies at the East with the “slave revolution”, like at the West. Struwe’s scheme revealed an emphasis on a rather high development of slavery at the Ancient Orient and parallels between its social phenomena and those of Ancient Greece and Rome. However, this emphasis vanished from his later texts, probably, due to a demand to show the Ancient Oriental societies as a phase preceding the Classical Antiquity, in compliance with the general trend of the world historiography.

South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War by Alice L. Baumgartner

Reviewed by: South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War by Alice L. Baumgartner Mark Smith (bio) South to Freedom: Runaway Slaves to Mexico and the Road to the Civil War. Alice L. Baumgartner. New York: Basic Books, 2020. ISBN 978-1541617780. 384 pp., cloth, $32.00. Fugitive slaves from the United States who ran to Mexico during the antebellum period “reorient our understanding of the Civil War, showing that one of the most distinctively ‘American’ events in US history was in part ignited” by these freedom seekers (4). Such is the central thesis of Alice L. Baumgartner’s brilliantly written but sometimes interpretively frustrating book. The stories of the fugitives are utterly compelling, but the extent to which runaways to Mexico “contributed to the outbreak of a major sectional controversy over the future of human bondage in the United States” remains murky (7). Those who made it to Mexico did so without the help of anything resembling an underground railroad. Their escapes were assisted by the occasional ally, not facilitated by a system or formal network. These fugitives escaped and made it to Mexico by their own wits, and it is these stories, the tales of courageous men and women, that Baumgartner captures brilliantly. Runaways were greeted with one of two options. Some joined the military outposts that the Mexican government had established to defend their nation’s northeastern frontier. Others traded their enslaved status for indentured servitude and worked as servants or on haciendas. In this respect, fugitives in Mexico were not unlike those who made it to the US North. After all, courtesy of the Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 and 1850, runaways who managed to get above the Mason-Dixon line found themselves in a condition of what Frederick Douglass called “doubtful liberty.” Still, differences abounded, and Baumgartner sagely reminds us of the powerful antislavery inflections at work in the Mexican national government. After the Texas Revolution, for example, the Mexican Congress abolished slavery; in 1849, it passed legislation making free any enslaved person from another country who stepped foot in Mexico. Nor did Mexico agree to any extradition treaties. Plainly, these antislavery currents perturbed Southern slaveholders not least because these policies threatened their expansion and held the real potential to disrupt slavery in the US borderlands. The backbone—interpretively and stylistically—of Baumgartner’s study is in the poignant, endearing, and inspiring stories of enslaved men and women who escaped to Mexico. Baumgartner has a superb eye for the revealing detail and evinces a deep tenacity when it comes to ferreting out stories long buried in far-flung archives. She is also extremely adept at unpacking the complicated legal [End Page 428] histories of slavery in the US and Mexico and does a superb job toggling between the two without losing sight of why slavery was and was not permitted in different places at different times. But historians interested in evidence beyond beautifully crafted stories will be disappointed. For example, Baumgartner cannot tell us how many enslaved people from the United States made it to Mexico. “My estimate,” she ventures, “based on scattered and incomplete Mexican sources, puts the number somewhere between three and five thousand” (4). While she is right to suggest this is far less than the tens of thousands who escaped to the US North, it is nonetheless frustrating that she offers nothing to document this guess. Yet for Baumgartner, the numbers do not matter, because while the “number of slaves who reached Mexico was undeniably small,” she believes that “each escape was important in its own right” (4). Critically, “their collective story had strategic and political significance out of all proportion to the numbers involved” (4). This may well be true. But while it is surely the case that fugitive slaves to Mexico “contributed” to the sectional tensions that led to the US Civil War, many things “contributed” to the coming of that war and to varying extents. Historians of the sectional conflict are under some obligation to stake their case about causality with more precision than Baumgartner’s interpretive framework can muster. Mark Smith University of South Carolina, Columbia Mark Smith MARK SMITH is...

Changes in informal society and slavery during the Chosun-Era in Korea

While slavery was unconventional in Northeast Asia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it has been documented in Korea from the Three Kingdoms period (BC 57–AD 668). In 1731, a new slavery regulation was introduced in Korea that stipulated that a child was a slave only if its mother was a slave, regardless of the status of the child’s father. This led to a dramatic decrease in the number of slaves. In addition, slaves also deserted more frequently after 1731 because the ‘not-freed’, remaining slaves tried various ways to secure their freedom amid the ensuing societal instability. The easiest way for slaves in Korea to achieve freedom was to flee their owners since they were of native descent. Slave desertions and entry into the informal economy may be attributed to the exclusion of slaves from social institution. Slaves attempted to escape from their current status to the informal sectors of society, where they could manage a subsistence-level existence without being caught. This study explores government registries of household tallies in three counties of Korea’s Kyungsang province and data on slave transaction. We consider the role of slave desertion in order to examine a relationship between the 1731 regulation change, the institution of slavery, and society. We find that the evidence indicates that the 1731 regulation change led to more desertions, and the costs of monitoring slaves increased; slaves were replaced with daily-wage workers on farmlands. This study contributes to the literature by tracing the causality of slave desertions to informal society that led to the collapse of slavery in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Korea.

Estimating the Size of the Dutch-Speaking Slave Population of New York in the eighteenth Century

Abstract Historians of American slavery are well-aware that there were slaves in New Netherland before the Dutch colony’s surrender to the English in 1664. It is seldom recognized, however, that the Dutch-speaking slave population in New York grew during the next century. This article establishes for the first time a reasonable estimate of the total number of Dutch-speaking slaves who lived in New York during the eighteenth century. To estimate the cumulative size of a dynamic population over time, the author constructs a population growth model with data drawn from New York’s colonial censuses, slave import and export data, and birth and death rates based on comparable historical circumstances, along with assumptions of exogenous shocks to the population due to factors such as war and slave runaways. The model suggests the total number of slaves who lived in New York at any point in the eighteenth century probably reached around 76,000. The article argues further that from 22,800 to 30,000 (30 to 40%) of these slaves likely spoke some Dutch.

Masters and Slaves: A Matching Model of Forced Labor with Heterogeneous Workers

Abstract At present, most countries have officially ratified the ILO Convention concerning forced or compulsory labor; however, serfdom is still present in the 21st century. This article addresses how oppressors recruit their victims and how certain mechanisms affect the extent of modern slavery. We use a matching model to analyze this recruitment process, incorporating involuntariness, which is the distinctive factor of employment relationships in modern slavery. In contrast to the standard matching model, not the workers exert effort to find jobs but the employers exert effort to find and hire slaves. Workers are heterogeneous regarding their vulnerability to enslavement, which is ex-ante unknown to the potential employers. The employer’s decision whether and to what extent to engage in forced labor depends on governmental labor protection and on the probability of detection. The model includes the possibility of bribery such that an employer can avoid sanctions if illicit behavior is detected. Solving the model yields that a high probability of detection and strict labor protection decrease slavery. We show that a high share of slaveholders increases the probability of enslavement and thus, the number of slaves. Surprisingly, strict labor protection increases the slaveholder’s effort, but also decreases their profit. (JEL codes: J23, J47, and J71)

사회경제사로 윤색된 뉴라이트 ‘유교망국론’ - 이영훈, 『세종은 과연 성군인가』의 노비제론 비판

This thesis aimed to criticize the contents of slavery in the Joseon Dynasty, mentioned in Lee Yeong-Hoon’s book 『Is Sejong Truly a Great King?』 published in 2018. As one of the reasons why Sejong cannot be a ‘great king’, Lee Yeong-Hoon’s book above points out that he largely contributed to the development of slavery system. Also, in Korean history, the slavery system was the most developed in the Joseon Dynasty, and during the 15th~17th century, the number of slaves was almost 40% of whole population. Moreover, the slaves in the Joseon Dynasty were described as the ‘socially-dead’ state after losing the dignity of man. And the ruling class defended the social order based on the Confucian justification.<BR>The characteristics of slavery system in the Joseon Dynasty mentioned in this book, are originally based on his research performance. Even though his researches on the slavery system in the Joseon Dynasty include very important contents in the research history, they have not been seriously reviewed or criticized in the academia. Moreover, this book includes many things that deny his academic argument or sensationally highlight the contents.<BR>Thus, this thesis first reviewed the critical points and significance in the research history by reviewing his academic argument. Next, this thesis also reviewed the contents of slavery system mentioned in 『Is Sejong Truly a Great King?』. Lastly, this thesis mentioned the ultimate contents that Lee Yeong-Hoon’s description of slavery system aimed for, shown in the book above. Eventually, he just added the socioeconomic interpretation to the old frame of the theory of national ruin by Confucianism through the slavery system.

Women along the Catumbela River, 1797: land ownership, agricultural production, labour and trade

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the multifaceted roles of women along the Catumbela River Basin, the “breadbasket” of Benguela, during a particular moment of its long agricultural history. It draws, first and foremost, upon an as yet unexploited census carried out along this river in 1797, which followed a short period of particularly high numbers of slaves being exported into the Atlantic world through Benguela. My contribution focuses on women in agricultural production, both as owners of rural estates and as free, freed or enslaved labourers, as well as in distributing agricultural produce via trade to the nearby urban market of Benguela, with its slightly less than 3200 permanent consumers. By capturing the various roles of women along the Catumbela River during a particular year, this paper highlights female agency within the context of a male-dominated world, expands our understanding of the development of agricultural properties, and adds to an ever-growing historiography that seeks to debunk simplistic and often anachronistic views of women in the African past.

Analysis and Performance Evaluation of Bluetooth Low Energy Piconet Network

This paper presents the performance analysis of Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) IEEE 802.15.1 standard in the piconet topology networks. The performance of the BLE network is analyzed in terms of connection interval (CI) and the number of slaves (NS) by using OMNET++ (v4.6) simulator. In the performance investigation process Data Length Extension (DLE) features is used with an application payload size of 60 bytes in order to achieve the best performance in a BLE (P2P) network. The modeled networks and due to the nature of short-range BLE wireless communication show a good matching between analytical and simulation results. For Single-Slave (or one like) piconet the obtained maximum simulation throughput is 478.7 kbps when a connection interval of (7.5) ms is used.

A History of the Ozarks. Volume 2: The Conflicted Ozarks by Brooks Blevins

Reviewed by: A History of the Ozarks. Volume 2: The Conflicted Ozarks by Brooks Blevins Jeffrey C. Stone A History of the Ozarks. Volume 2: The Conflicted Ozarks. By Brooks Blevins. (Urbana and other cities: University of Illinois Press, 2019. Pp. xiv, 297. $34.95, ISBN 978-0-252-04273-7.) As the leading authority on the Ozarks, Brooks Blevins continues to produce thoughtful research that probes the identity of this region in the upper South. This book is the second in a series of three volumes that spans the history of the Ozark uplift. In this volume, The Conflicted Ozarks, Blevins delves into the Civil War era. He contends that this region encompassed political and cultural elements of southern, western, and midwestern identities. While located on the peripheries of each region, the Ozarks were mired in conflict during the period. By the outbreak of war, the Ozarks region, still evolving out of the frontier stage, was a "cultural borderland" that was coming of age but was never truly Union or Confederate. This history created a world of deep conflict, leaving the region a "blueprint for true civil warfare and for a generation of postwar animus and violence" (p. 4). Highlighting the fact that slavery was rather miniscule in the area, Blevins contends that the Ozarks were not immune to the slavery debate because the region was adjacent to the frontier territories. Blevins argues that the brand of slavery that existed in the Ozarks was closely related to what Ira Berlin calls a society with slaves. Even though the number of slaves was relatively sparse, ranging from none in some counties to over 12 percent of the population in others, slavery touched the lives of nearly everyone in some fashion. The Ozarks were not protected from the racial tensions that existed during the Civil War period. The proslavery factions were strong in the Ozarks, but their strength did not prevent abolitionists from joining the debate; much of the argument played out among the religious leaders on both sides of the issue. Blevins claims that, although the region was an afterthought to those directing the war from Washington, D.C., and Richmond, Virginia, the Ozarks faced the same political and social schisms that played out in the East, only magnified as guerrilla warfare. Blevins asserts that, aside from a handful of notable battles like Wilson's Creek and Pea Ridge early in the war, guerrilla warfare was much more damaging to the people of the region. The majority of [End Page 722] the people in the Ozarks were civilians caught up in a terrorizing warfare from both Union and Confederate raiders. Neither side could effectively establish control, leaving in their wake nothing but devastation and heartache. Throughout his study, Blevins masterfully shows why the Ozarks were vastly conflicted during the Civil War era. While analyzing the numerous skirmishes and raids by both Union and Confederate forces, he meticulously examines many of the lives of those who caused destruction through guerrilla warfare and of the civilians who were impacted by it. At war's end, the political fight continued, creating political and economic divides that delayed any kind of meaningful recovery for many years. With a detailed and captivating narrative, Blevins strategically inserts scholarly research to underscore his points. Although the final chapter, which focuses on economic developments during Reconstruction, is methodically researched and deserves exposure, Blevins is at his best in demonstrating the conflicted Ozarks with his analysis of the onset of war, the war itself, and the political divisions that persisted. Moreover, like any good historian, he raises questions that need further exploration. Blevins rightfully asserts that the voting pattern in the 1860 election needs a deeper analysis. While he only touches on runaway slaves who joined forces with the Unionists, the book raises questions for further research into slave resistance and culture. Blevins is painstaking with his research but narrates this conflicted era with ease. Civil War historians and regional scholars alike will enjoy his second volume on the history of the Ozarks. Jeffrey C. Stone American Public University Copyright © 2020 The Southern Historical Association

Mission und Sklaverei. Die Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine und die Sklavenemanzipation in Britisch- und Dänisch-Westindien

Mission und Sklaverei. Die Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine und die Sklavenemanzipation in Britisch- und Dänisch-Westindien

Destroyed by Slavery? Slavery and African American Family Formation Following Emancipation.

This study introduces a new sample that links people and families across 1860, 1880, and 1900 census data to explore the intergenerational impact of slavery on black families in the United States. Slaveholding-the number of slaves owned by a single farmer or planter-is used as a proxy for experiences during slavery. Slave family structures varied systematically with slaveholding sizes. Enslaved children on smaller holdings were more likely to be members of single-parent or divided families. On larger holdings, however, children tended to reside in nuclear families. In 1880, a child whose mother had been on a farm with five slaves was 49 % more likely to live in a single-parent household than a child whose mother had been on a farm with 15 slaves. By 1900, slaveholding no longer had an impact. However, children whose parents lived in single-parent households were themselves more likely to live in single-parent households and to have been born outside marriage.

"Crespo e Nuu e Negro": Gomes Eanes de Zurara and the Racialization of Non-Christians by Portuguese Authors

"Crespo e Nuu e Negro":Gomes Eanes de Zurara and the Racialization of Non-Christians by Portuguese Authors Marcelo E. Fuentes In an often-quoted passage of the Crónica dos feitos notáveis que se passaram na conquista da Guiné, Gomes Eanes de Zurara describes a massive auction of African slaves that took place in Lagos, Portugal, in 1444.1 As Willie James Jennings clarifies, "this event did not mark the first time slaves had appeared at the port of Lagos"; however, "the newness of the event lay in the number of slaves, 235" and "in their place of origin, parts of Africa theretofore unvisited by the Portuguese."2 Additionally, according to Peter Russell, this auction and the following ones in Lagos and Lisbon showed the rest of Europe that "instead of having to depend for supplies of black slaves on the trans-Saharan caravan routes controlled by Islam, the Portuguese had established direct access by sea to the regions of Guinea where such slaves were available by barter in potentially whatever numbers their ships and their new slave markets at home were able to handle."3 In Zurara's account of the first auction in Lagos, two elements stand out: the variety of skin color of the people put on sale and the intense emotionality of the scene: Os quaaes [catiuos] postos juntamẽte naquelle cãpo. era hũa marauilhosa cousa de veer. Ca antre elles auya alguũs de razoada brancura / fremosos e apostos. outros menos brancos que queryam semelhar pardos. outros tam negros come tiopios tã desafeiçoados assy nas caras como nos corpos que casy parecia aos homeẽs que os esguardauam que vyã as jmageẽs do jmjsperyo mais baixo. mas qual serya o coraçom por duro que seer podesse / que nom fosse pungido de piedoso sentimẽto / veẽdo assy aquella cõpanha / Ca huũs tijnham as caras baixas e os rostros lauados com lagrimas oolhando huũs contra os outros. outros estauam gemendo muy doorosamente esguardando a altura dos ceeos firmando os olhos em elles braadando altamente como se pedissem acorro ao padre da natureza. [. . .] Mas pera seu doo seer mais [End Page 17] acrecẽtado sobreueherom aquelles que tijnham carrego da partilha e começarom de os apartarem huũs dos outros afim de poerẽ seus quinhoões em jgualleza / onde cõuijnha de necessydade de sse apartarem os filhos dos padres e as molheres dos maridos e os huũs jrmaãos dos outros. [And these (captives), placed all together in that field, were a marvelous sight; for amongst them were some white enough, fair to look upon, and well proportioned; others were less white like mulattoes; others again were as black as Ethiops, and so ugly, both in features and in body, as almost to appear (to those who saw them) the images of a lower hemisphere. But what heart could be so hard as not to be pierced with piteous feeling to see that company? For some kept their heads low and their faces bathed in tears, looking one upon another; others stood groaning very dolorously, looking up to the height of heaven, fixing their eyes upon it, crying out loudly, as if asking help of the Father of Nature (. . .) But to increase their sufferings still more, there now arrived those who had charge of the division of the captives, and who began to separate one from another, in order to make an equal partition of the fifths; and then was it needful to part fathers from sons, husbands from wives, brothers from brothers.]4 The attention to the slaves' distressed reactions towards the separation from their relatives could suggest Zurara's sympathy for them and his loathing of slavery, if the passage were read in isolation. In context, however, Zurara's views are more complex and challenging to a contemporary understanding: not despite, but precisely because he considers Africans as fully human and worthy of his sympathy, Zurara advocates for their slavery. Only as slaves can Africans be civilized and Christianized for their material and spiritual benefit, since in the past they were living in perdition of their souls, because "erã pagaãos" [they...

A Novel Algorithm for Establishing a Balanced Synchronization Hierarchy with Spare Masters (BSHSM) for the IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol

The best master clock (BMC) algorithm is currently used to establish the master-slave hierarchy for the IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol (PTP). However, the BMC algorithm may create an unbalanced hierarchy that contains several boundary clocks with a large number of slaves in comparison to other clocks. The unbalanced hierarchy can cause problems, such as high communication load and high bandwidth consumption in boundary clocks. Additionally, the BMC algorithm does not provide any fast recovery mechanism in the case of a master failure. In this paper, we propose a novel balanced synchronization hierarchy with spare masters (BSHSM) algorithm to establish a balanced master-slave hierarchy and to provide a fast recovery mechanism in the case of master failures for the PTP. The BSHSM algorithm establishes the master-slave hierarchy with boundary clocks that have a balanced number of slaves. In doing so, it solves the problems caused by the unbalanced master-slave hierarchy. Additionally, the BSHSM algorithm provides a fast recovery mechanism by selecting a spare master for each boundary clock; this allows a boundary clock to immediately select a new master clock when its current master has failed or is disconnected. The fast recovery mechanism reduces the period of running freely and clock drift in clocks, improving the synchronization quality of the PTP. Various simulations were conducted using the network simulation OMNeT++ v4.6 to analyze, evaluate, and compare the performance of the BSHSM and BMC algorithms. The simulation results show that the synchronization hierarchy of the BSHSM algorithm is much more balanced than the BMC algorithm, and it also has a shorter period of recovery.

Review: Portrait of an Island: The Architecture and Material Culture of Gorée, Sénégal, 1758–1837, by Mark Hinchman

Mark Hinchman Portrait of an Island: The Architecture and Material Culture of Goree, Senegal, 1758–1837 Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2015, 396 pp., 78 b/w illus. $70, ISBN 9780803280892 Although the island of Goree is a small speck of land situated in the harbor of Dakar, it has nonetheless garnered attention as one of the most visited attractions in modern Senegal. Each year, thousands of tourists descend upon Goree in an attempt to learn more about a site that some have described as a preeminent slave trading port. Contrary to popular legend, however, scholarly research has revealed that the number of slaves who passed through this town in the early modern period topped off in the low thousands, and not in the millions as local guides often claim. Nevertheless, the island remains a crucial site for understanding African histories of architectural exchange. After the French gained control in 1677, the island grew into a commercial port with mercantile ties to Europe, the Americas, and even the Indian Ocean islands of Mauritius and Reunion.1 These trade networks set the stage for the development of a hybrid social system wherein architecture and material culture reflected what Mark Hinchman identifies as the cosmopolitan status of local African and European populations. It is this predicament that Hinchman addresses in Portrait of an Island: The Architecture and Material Culture of Goree, Senegal, 1758–1837 . In engaging the architecture and the social history of Goree during its economic heyday, Hinchman calls attention to the ways in which this enclave incubated a multicultural society comprising individuals who were familiar with the architectural styles, the products, the social norms, and the conventions of dress of Europe, West Africa, the Americas, and even South Asia. Hinchman accomplishes this task in six chapters that draw a vast array of archival documents into a broadly interdisciplinary study. Collectively, his sources include …

Middleware Design for Swarm-Driving Robots Accompanying Humans.

Research on robots that accompany humans is being continuously studied. The Pet-Bot provides walking-assistance and object-carrying services without any specific controls through interaction between the robot and the human in real time. However, with Pet-Bot, there is a limit to the number of robots a user can use. If this limit is overcome, the Pet-Bot can provide services in more areas. Therefore, in this study, we propose a swarm-driving middleware design adopting the concept of a swarm, which provides effective parallel movement to allow multiple human-accompanying robots to accomplish a common purpose. The functions of middleware divide into three parts: a sequence manager for swarm process, a messaging manager, and a relative-location identification manager. This middleware processes the sequence of swarm-process of robots in the swarm through message exchanging using radio frequency (RF) communication of an IEEE 802.15.4 MAC protocol and manages an infrared (IR) communication module identifying relative location with IR signal strength. The swarm in this study is composed of the master interacting with the user and the slaves having no interaction with the user. This composition is intended to control the overall swarm in synchronization with the user activity, which is difficult to predict. We evaluate the accuracy of the relative-location estimation using IR communication, the response time of the slaves to a change in user activity, and the time to organize a network according to the number of slaves.

The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775-1865 by James J. Gigantino (review)

Reviewed by: The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775-1865 by James J. Gigantino Jonathan Mercantini (bio) Keywords New Jersey, Slavery, Emancipation, Abolition, Labor The Ragged Road to Abolition: Slavery and Freedom in New Jersey, 1775-1865. By James J. Gigantino, II. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. Pp. 359. Cloth, $39.95.) The history of slavery in New Jersey has always defied easy explanation. The peculiar institution in the Garden State possessed similarities to slavery in the Upper South and the Border States, as well as New England. Even the geography of slavery was reversed. The northern and northwestern parts of the state, particularly Bergen, Morris, Essex, and Hunterdon Counties that were tied to New York City, possessed considerable numbers of slaves. Conversely, slavery was of declining importance even before the American Revolution in the heavily Quaker southern counties where abolitionism was embraced early. New Jersey’s legacy as the only state that did not secede and yet which failed to vote for Abraham Lincoln in either the 1860 or 1864 presidential election has long been used as a shorthand to show the strength of slavery or at least of southern sympathy in the state after most of the industrializing north had abandoned this form of unfree labor. James J. Gigantino II’s new book on the subject is, therefore, a welcome addition that greatly improves our understanding of slavery in New Jersey. Gigantino’s findings are also useful for understanding the contradictions and complexities of abolition in neighboring states. Abolition and then emancipation were both gradual processes in New Jersey and were shaped by persistent white animosity toward blacks. Many slave owners actively subverted gradual abolition by selling slaves out of state or by creating new categories of unfree labor. Overall, the author finds a strong commitment to slavery and to various forms of pseudo-slavery throughout the state from the Revolutionary era through the election of Lincoln. [End Page 195] Several notable national trends are apparent in New Jersey. Gigantino finds that, rather than leading to calls for black liberty and freedom, the disruption and destruction of the War for Independence in New Jersey served to strengthen the institution of slavery as whites feared a black revolt. The state’s central location—the ‘‘Crossroads of the American Revolution’’—therefore contributed to New Jersey’s status as the last northern state to pass an act for gradual emancipation. This legacy of the American Revolution remained important throughout the long and winding path toward emancipation, but for Gigantino that legacy was mixed. He argues that, ‘‘Slavery’s destruction in New Jersey then did not occur as an immediate by-product of the American Revolution, but of the Civil War’’ (250). Slavery continued to grow at a rate of approximately 20 percent from 1790 to 1800 in the northern counties of the state. While the Revolution did eventually lead to gradual emancipation, the African American freedom struggle required much more than the words and actions of the Revolutionary era. Moreover, as Gigantino shows, gradual emancipation did little to end slavery; it simply modified the institution into other forms of unfree labor. While the state’s 1804 gradual emancipation act did offer avenues to freedom for Jersey slaves and especially their children, mostly it created ‘‘slaves for a term.’’ The ambiguities of the law together with the grudging acceptance by some whites, and the resistance to the emancipation by many, led to the persistence of slavery well into the nineteenth century. During the first decades of the new nation, one can see slavery evolving into a flexible system, with regional and even local variations in New Jersey and other states as they struggled to construct a system to manage African American labor. It is important, Gigantino tells us, to understand that abolitionism, in both its gradual and its eventual immediate forms, was consistently contested as whites feared black liberty, economic competition, and potential political power, and relied on white supremacy to locate themselves in a changing America. These trends will be readily recognizable to scholars of slavery elsewhere in the United States. In New Jersey, they serve to reinforce the extent to which the state was...

Counter-narratives of slavery in the Deep South: the politics of empathy along and beyond River Road

ABSTRACTThe historical institution of slavery is unevenly memorialized across the US's cultural landscape. This unevenness is particularly noticeable in ‘Deep South’ states such as Mississippi and Louisiana, where cotton and sugar cane plantations once required vast numbers of slaves to economically succeed. While many antebellum plantation sites now function as tourist attractions complete with ‘Big House’ tours, they often ignore or annihilate the memory of slavery from plantation history. However, not all plantations and museums disregard slavery, and the owners and workers at these sites intentionally employ slavery counter-narratives to evoke empathy in visitors and create a more socially just cultural landscape. This paper examines three sites along and beyond River Road that employ counter-narrative techniques: the Natchez Museum of African-American History and Culture, Frogmore Cotton Plantation, and Whitney Plantation. The paper includes a discussion of each site's narrative tactics and how they stand out from other plantation sites in their representation of slavery. Engaging in growing conversations on the possibilities of empathetic responses to counter-narrative spaces, this paper argues that empathy – while important and possible for many visitors and consumers at these sites of memory – may preclude important political activism and greater solidarity between racial groups.