Number Of Butterflies Research Articles

Harnessing Indigenous Knowledge for Effective Butterfly Conservation: Evidence from Community Engagement in the Ebo Forest Reserve, Littoral Region, Cameroon

Aim: This study investigates the role of indigenous knowledge in butterfly conservation within the Ebo Forest Reserve, Littoral Region, Cameroon. Pollinators, particularly butterflies, are critical for ecosystem health, yet they face significant declines due to habitat loss, pesticide use, and climate change. Methods: Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, local communities in Iboti and Lognanga were engaged to assess their knowledge, perceptions, and contributions to butterfly conservation. The research was conducted in communities adjacent to the Ebo Forest Reserve, Cameroon, between January and July 2024. The majority of the respondents (59%) were from the Iboti community, while 41% were from the Lognanga community. The survey included questions about ecological significance, perceived threats, and cultural associations related to butterflies. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics and inferential statistics to evaluate the relationships between demographic factors and attitudes toward butterflies. Results: The study found that while community members possess a general awareness of butterfly presence, specific ecological knowledge, such as dietary preferences, is limited. A majority (68%) frequently observe butterflies, and 83% have noted recent population changes, with most perceiving stability in butterfly numbers. Despite high interest in conservation initiatives (81.9%), significant barriers exist, including limited resources and lack of awareness about conservation efforts. Conclusion: Local ecological knowledge should be integrated into conservation strategies, with emphasize on community-led initiatives to enhance butterfly conservation in the Ebo Forest Reserve. Recommendation: To enhance butterfly conservation efforts in the Ebo Forest Reserve, it is crucial to develop and implement community-led educational programs that focus on indigenous knowledge and ecological practices.

Vegetation productivity determines the response of butterflies along elevation gradients in the trans‐Himalayas, Nepal

AbstractEnvironmental parameters along elevational gradients affect the number of butterflies and the variety of species. However, which variables play significant roles and how they operate can be difficult to untangle. Here, we examine the relationships between observed butterfly richness (overall and subgroups) at different elevation gradients and remotely sensed environmental variables (vegetation productivity, surface temperature, landscape heterogeneity, and moisture stress) using generalized linear models. We surveyed butterflies with a fixed‐point count method in 19 elevation bands within 1600–5200 m above sea level in Manang district, trans‐Himalayan region, north‐central Nepal. The number of butterflies in each elevation band was studied and estimated, then interpolated across the lowest and highest elevation to estimate butterfly species richness. Then, the selection of models was performed on butterfly richness and elevations to test the best model support based on the lowest value of the Akaike information criterion and a multimodel averaging for other environmental variables. Altogether, 94 butterfly species, representing 20 subfamilies and six families, were recorded throughout the study periods. We obtained cubic model support for overall species richness, Papilionidae, and Hesperiidae, quadratic to Nymphalidae and Pieridae, and the linear model to Lycaenidae. In our study, vegetation productivity was found to have a significant positive impact on butterfly communities. Our study further suggests species richness of Papilionidae and Hesperiidae has a strong positive correlation with surface temperature and landscape heterogeneity and negative associations with moisture stress but other subgroups of butterfly communities including overall species richness showed insignificant relationships with these variables. This study provides significant information related to the responses of montane butterflies to environmental variables along elevational gradients from the Himalayas Nepal. However, further detailed studies on the functional behaviors of butterflies potentially offer more insights into their distribution patterns and ecological relationship in the montane environment.

A Checklist of Butterflies in Ananda Tea Estate and its Adjacent Areas of Lakhimpur District, Assam, India

In the present study, a checklist of butterflies from the Ananda Tea Estate of Lakhimpur district, Assam is prepared and presented. During the study, surveys were carried out from October 2022 to April 2024 in the Ananda tea estate (27°27' N and 94°14' E) and its nearby areas– Dulung reserve forest and Subansiri river. A total of 36 species across 32 genera belonging to five families viz., Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Papilionidae, Lycaenidae, Riodinidae were recorded during the study. Amongst all the families, Nymphalidae was the most diverse family comprising 17 species which belong to 16 different genera. Approximately 48% of the recorded species belong to the Nymphalidae family, indicating the highest species richness. The dominant nature of the family Nymphalidae can be attributed to the polyphagous nature of the species under the family which help them to live in diverse habitats. The species Common albatross (Appias albina), recorded during the study, is protected under Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 2022 of India. The Whittaker β-diversity was found to be 0.6875, indicating a moderate level of species turnover among the study sites. In the tea estate, due to the spraying of chemical pesticides large number of butterflies die each year which can be saved by replacing the chemical pesticides with biopesticides and other eco-friendly pest control methods including use of botanicals, Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs) and microbial antagonists.

Assessment of the Diversity and Abundance of Butterfly Fauna in and around Choolanur Peafowl Sanctuary in Palakkad, Kerala, India

This study investigates the diversity and abundance of butterflies in two selected sites, Choolanur (protected area) and Pazhambalakkode (an area close to sanctuary) of Palakkad district of Kerala, India. The study was done only in and around the peafowl sanctuary and Choolanur forest premise and the diversity of butterfly was found to be a little high at Site 1(Choolanur), with Nymphalidae family being most abundant. The number of butterflies from the Papilionidae and Lycaenida family was recorded to be in less numbers as compare to the Nymphalidae. The diversity of butterflies at at Site 2 (Pazhambalakkode) the diversity was almost similar to the diversity of Site 1, which may be due to the immigration of species. The butterflies were sampled by direct search method and photographs were identified with the help of keys and specialists. The species belonging to Nymphalidae family was seen to be high, followed by species of the Lycaenidae family, Pieridae family and the species of the Papilionidae family was recorded to be least. Our results not only confirm the importance of protected sites for protecting biodiversity within a particular area but also highlight their beneficial effects in their surroundings.

Impossibility result for Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling from microcanonical bipartite graph ensembles.

Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithms are commonly used to sample from graph ensembles. Two graphs are neighbors in the state space if one can be obtained from the other with only a few modifications, e.g., edge rewirings. For many common ensembles, e.g., those preserving the degree sequences of bipartite graphs, rewiring operations involving two edges are sufficient to create a fully connected state space, and they can be performed efficiently. We show that, for ensembles of bipartite graphs with fixed degree sequences and number of butterflies (k_{2,2} bicliques), there is no universal constant c such that a rewiring of at most c edges at every step is sufficient for any such ensemble to be fully connected. Our proof relies on an explicit construction of a family of pairs of graphs with the same degree sequences and number of butterflies, with each pair indexed by a natural c, and such that any sequence of rewiring operations transforming one graph into the other must include at least one rewiring operation involving at least c edges. Whether rewiring this many edges is sufficient to guarantee the full connectivity of the state space of any such ensemble remains an open question. Our result implies the impossibility of developing efficient, graph-agnostic, MCMC algorithms for these ensembles, as the necessity to rewire an impractically large number of edges may hinder taking a step on the state space.

Scalable Approximate Butterfly and Bi-triangle Counting for Large Bipartite Networks

A bipartite graph is a graph that consists of two disjoint sets of vertices and only edges between vertices from different vertex sets. In this paper, we study the counting problems of two common types of em motifs in bipartite graphs: (i) butterflies (2x2 bicliques) and (ii) bi-triangles (length-6 cycles). Unlike most of the existing algorithms that aim to obtain exact counts, our goal is to obtain precise enough estimations of these counts in bipartite graphs, as such estimations are already sufficient and of great usefulness in various applications. While there exist approximate algorithms for butterfly counting, these algorithms are mainly based on the techniques designed for general graphs, and hence, they are less effective on bipartite graphs. Not to mention that there is still a lack of study on approximate bi-triangle counting. Motivated by this, we first propose a novel butterfly counting algorithm, called one-sided weighted sampling, which is tailored for bipartite graphs. The basic idea of this algorithm is to estimate the total butterfly count with the number of butterflies containing two randomly sampled vertices from the same side of the two vertex sets. We prove that our estimation is unbiased, and our technique can be further extended (non-trivially) for bi-triangle count estimation. Theoretical analyses under a power-law random bipartite graph model and extensive experiments on multiple large real datasets demonstrate that our proposed approximate counting algorithms can reach high accuracy, yet achieve up to three orders (resp. four orders) of magnitude speed-up over the state-of-the-art exact butterfly (resp. bi-triangle) counting algorithms. Additionally, we present an approximate clustering coefficient estimation framework for bipartite graphs, which shows a similar speed-up over the exact solutions with less than 1% relative error.

Landscape homogenisation and simplified butterfly community structure go on par across Northern Austria

ContextAgricultural intensification has led to strong homogenization of landscapes. Field copses have become larger, the boundaries between habitats became sharper, and land plots have been cultivated more intensively. In parallel, most field copses, ruderal areas and hedgerows were removed. As a result, ecotones and rarely used microhabitats largely disappeared. In consequence, many suitable habitats for species such as butterflies vanished and the permeability of the landscape decreased, with negative effects on biodiversity.ObjectiveIn this study we analyse land-use and habitat configuration, and butterfly diversity for the years 1953 and 2018 for northern Austria.MethodsWe assessed land cover and landscape configuration for the years 1953 and 2018 on a field-by-field basis across northern Austria, based on aerial and satellite images. We studied butterfly diversity for these two identical periods of time.ResultsOur data show a decrease of the number of field copses over the past decades and a reduction in landscape complexity. The expected number of butterflies per sample unit of an assumed species decreased significantly. Particularly sedentary specialists decreased, while the proportion of mobile generalists increased.ConclusionsOur study underlines the general trend of landscape and faunal homogenization, which specifically leads to the vanishing of extensively used micro-habitats and the loss of sedentary specialist species.

A comparison between time‐constrained counts and line transects as methods to estimate butterfly diversity and monitor populations in tropical habitats

Abstract Long‐term species monitoring programmes have revealed catastrophic declines in insect populations and disruption of biological communities that are contributing to biodiversity loss. Such discoveries have been possible because of standardised methods, such as line transects, of counting butterflies and other insects. However, line transects are not feasible in many tropical and mountainous habitats, so alternative methods must be explored. To tackle this issue, we devised time‐constrained (30‐min) counts and compared butterfly diversity estimated through timed counts and line transects in three tropical habitats in India (evergreen forest, dry deciduous forest and an urban woodland). We tested the relative performance of the two methods in sampling species richness and abundance, as well as numbers of rare, endemic and specialist butterflies. We observed greater overall species richness, and more species of habitat specialists and endemics per sample in time‐constrained counts in the evergreen forest, but not in the other two habitats. Thus, time‐constrained counts were relatively more efficient in detecting species in the species‐rich evergreen habitat. Apart from this difference, the two sampling methods captured similar levels of species richness and other measures of diversity. Our study thus shows that time‐constrained counts are a suitable if not a superior alternative to line transects to conduct butterfly diversity surveys and population monitoring in complex tropical landscapes. Due to methodological flexibility and simplicity, time‐constrained counts may be particularly useful to study the impacts of climate change, habitat fragmentation and land use practices on butterfly, Odonata and other insect populations in populous and tech‐ready tropical countries using citizen science frameworks.

A Review On The Diversity Of Butterfly (Insecta: Lepidoptera) Fauna From Bangladesh

Butterflies are widely regarded as the most reliable bioindicators of a healthy terrestrial ecosystem. This insect belongs to the order Lepidoptera of the class Insecta and plays an important role in preserving ecological dynamics. The objective of this paper is to review the species diversity of butterflies in Bangladesh. The data is based mainly on published records and field sampling. IUCN Bangladesh (2015) evaluated the threat status of 305 species of butterflies in 2015. The overall number of butterfly species in Bangladesh is now 421, with another 116 having just been added to the IUCN-Bangladesh list. Lycaenidae has the most species (124), followed by Hesperiidae (87), Nymphalidae (79), Satyridae (35), Pieridae (36), Papilionidae (32), Danaidae (19), Riodinidae (4), Amathusiidae (4), and finally Acraeidae, which has only one species. In the present review, it is shown that the family Lycaenidae has the highest percentage of butterfly species (29.45%) among the ten families. The number of Lycaenid butterflies is influenced by various factors, one of which is their ability to inhabit a diverse array of habitats. In contrast, Danaidae account for only 4.51% species of butterflies in Bangladesh, where only one Critically Endangered (CR) and endemic taxon, Euploea crameri nicevillei (Sundarban Crow) resides. Larval host plant documentation in the Sundarbans is essential for the conservation of this species, while the molecular data (COI gene) has already been sequenced and submitted to Genbank (MH269417). Finally, the data obtained from this paper is important for future planning and management of the conservation of the butterflies and their habitat in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Zool. 51(1): 03-34, 2023

Diversity and Abundance of Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) in Sethu Bhaskara Agricultural College and Research Foundation, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, South India

Butterflies play a vital role in the ecosystem, acting as pollinators, pollution indicators, pests, predators, weed killers, a good source of food and being of aesthetic, economic and ecological importance. World-wide butterfly populations are on the decline due to habitat destruction and deforestation. This study was taken with the prime objective of preparing the checklist of butterflies at Sethu Bhaskara Agricultural College and Research Foundation, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, from April 2023 to July 2023. A total of 976 individuals of 76 species belonging to 5 families have been recorded in the survey. For this study, the college was mapped into four different habitats: botanical garden area, agricultural field area, horticultural field area and grassland area. Results revealed that the family Nymphalidae showed the maximum number of species (22.0 species) from 12 genera (29.0%), followed by Lycaenidae (20.0 species) from17genera (26.5%), Pieridae (18.0 species) from 9 genera (24.0%), Hesperiidae (12.0 species) from 11 genera (16.0%) and the least being Papilionidae (4.0 species) from 2 genera (5.5%). Among the four sites, the botanical garden area ranks first with the highest number of butterflies (140 species, N =280), followed by the horticultural field area (129 species, N = 258), the agricultural field area (115 species, N = 230) and the grassland area (104 species, N = 208). According to the monthly distribution of butterflies, the maximum number of species and abundance were recorded in the months of July (307 species, N = 332), followed by June (141 species, N = 282), April (112 species, N= 224) and least in May (69 species, N = 138). The overall Shannon-Weiner diversity index was H = 1.50, Pielou’s evenness index was E = 0.60 and Margalef’s index was R = 13.30. This study illustrated useful information on butterfly diversity in the study region, which serves as a baseline for future monitoring programs.

An Exploratory Attitude and Belief Analysis of Ecotourists’ Destination Image Assessments and Behavioral Intentions

Colombia is noteworthy as a biodiversity hotspot, featuring an extraordinary number of endemic orchids, birds, and butterflies. This exploratory study examined how the perceptions of destination image, considering the cognitive and affective image, can be a predictor or positive influencer of behavioral intentions of ecotourists through symmetric data analysis. The success of a birdwatching destination can be attributed more to the development of a positive overall image, by having a direct and strong influence on behavioral intentions, indirect effects such as affective image can also be identified such as intention to visit and intention to recommend. Using partial least squares (PLS), the author(s) analyzed 64 survey responses collected of rural areas from an invitation made to associations of professional birdwatchers, including a new 15-statement scale specialized on birdwatching as a result of personal interviews with tourism management professionals and entrepreneurs who are experts in birdwatching. The findings supported the reliability of the model, and symmetric analysis presented the higher influence of emotions and affections in increasing intentions of recommendation, considering birdwatching as based on personal relationships. Additionally, the cognitive image for the birders despite representing destination attributes did not have the same impact on behavioral intentions. Therefore, managers should develop positioning strategies based on the generation of emotions.

Keanekaragaman Spesies Kupu-kupu di Gunung Jae Kabupaten Lombok Barat sebagai Materi Pengayaan Pelajaran Biologi SMA

Butterflies have important values for humans and the environment, such as ecological, aesthetic, educational, conservation, and cultural values. Mount Jae is a butterfly habitat located in Sedau Village, Narmada District, West Lombok Regency. This exploratory descriptive study aims to determine the diversity of butterfly species in Gunung Jae, West Lombok Regency as enrichment material for high school biology lessons. This research was conducted from March to April 2023. Data was collected using a survey method with a sweeping net technique and following two predetermined observation paths, namely the path of the lake by the rice fields and the path of the lake by the dam. In this study, the number of butterflies that were found was 381 individuals consisting of 22 species, 18 genera, and 5 families (Papilionidae, Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, and Hesperiidae). The highest relative abundance found was from the Nymphalidae family (54.3%) and the lowest relative abundance was from the Papilionidae family (7.6%). Analysis of the species diversity index of butterflies used the Shannon-Wienner formula and obtained a species diversity index (H') value for all species of 2.946. The results of the validation show that booklets are very good for use as enrichment material in the learning process, with the percentage of media experts 98.1% and material experts 97.7% with a very valid validity category.

Prospects for digitalization of monitoring of Lepidoptera phytophages of grapes

The effectiveness of phytophagous insect control systems depends on the accuracy of the chosen method of monitoring their numbers and the available information on the dynamics of the population number. As part of the automation of the processes of collecting and analyzing data on the biological activity of pheromone preparations of the phytophage of grapes Lobesia botrana Den. et Schiff., the method of counting the number of pest butterflies on the glue inserts of pheromone traps has been improved by the use of digital cameras and MCView software. According to the validation results, it was found that, relative to the actual data, the improved method ensured the accuracy of counting butterflies at a density of 45-321 imago/insert at an average of 99.1%, which exceeded the results of counting by the traditional visual method by an average of 5%. It is shown that partial method automation made it possible to reduce the influence of a particular researcher, as a subjective factor, on the experiment results. An increase in the time required for counting butterflies by the improved method relative to the visual method by an average of 30% was noted. The presented method of quantitative evaluation of the results of pheromone monitoring in vineyards is a transitional stage to the full automation of this information collection and analysis. For this purpose, to date, photosets have been collected containing more than 1000 photos of glue inserts of pheromone traps with captured butterflies and training of a convolutional neural network has begun designed to detect and quantify such grape lepidopteran phytophages as Lobesia botrana, Helicoverpa armigera Hbn., Theresimima ampelophaga Bayl. (Insecta: Lepidoptera).

I/O-Efficient Butterfly Counting at Scale

Butterfly (a cyclic graph motif) counting is a fundamental task with many applications in graph analysis, which aims at computing the number of butterflies in a large graph. With the rapid growth of graph data, it is more and more challenging to do butterfly counting due to the super-linear time complexity and large memory consumption. In this paper, we study I/O-efficient algorithms for doing butterfly counting on hierarchical memory. Existing algorithms of the kind cannot guarantee I/O optimality. Observing that in order to count butterflies, it suffices to "witness" a subgraph instead of the whole structure, a new class of algorithms called semi-witnessing algorithm is proposed. We prove that a semi-witnessing algorithm is not restricted by the lower bound Ømega(|E|2/MB) of a witnessing algorithm, and give a new bound of Ømega(min(|E|2/MB, |E|/|V| √M B)). We further develop the IOBufs algorithm that manages to approach the I/O lower bound, and thus claim its optimality. Finally, we make efforts to parallelize IOBufs to further improve the performance and scalability. We show in the experiment that IOBufs significantly outperforms the state-of-the-art algorithms EMRC and BFC-EM. In addition, IOBufs can scale to conducting butterfly counting on the Clueweb graph with 37 billion edges and quintillions (10^18 ) of butterflies.

Vanishing meadows — Quantitative analysis of factors driving population declines of endangered butterflies

There is a growing number of alarming reports indicating serious declines in biodiversity of invertebrates, mostly manifested through loss of local populations and abundances, and prognosing their regional extinctions. Proper defining of threats is crucial for the effective conservation of endangered species and valuable habitats. Nevertheless, while typically such threats are broadly recognized, their long-term quantitative assessments are rarely available. The aim of this study was to identify and quantify the main drivers of population dynamics and habitat loss of two endangered butterfly species of the genus Phengaris within an extensive semi-urban landscape with 70 initial habitat patches. Over two decades of the study, almost half of the habitat patches remained abandoned, whereas a quarter was directly destroyed through conversion to build-up areas. The latter process was most harmful to butterfly numbers, although it occurred only outside Natura 2000 protected sites. Besides, afforestation works, even if rare, caused significant declines in local populations of the investigated butterflies. Similarly, the meadow abandonment led to decrease in butterfly numbers and their local extinctions due to habitat loss. Meadows were threatened mostly by direct human destruction. The habitat area decreased nearly by 15 %, of which ca. 2/3 suffered direct destruction by built-up, especially in most recent years. As meadows are one of globally threatened terrestrial biodiversity hotspots, and meadow abandonment is partially reversible, there is an urgent need to implement conservation-oriented management of remaining fragments as an effective tool ensuring the persistence of these habitats and their species communities.

Atlas of the butterflies and moths of Nigeria, LepiMap report, 2010–2021

Interest in citizen science, notably biodiversity mapping, has soared recently in Africa, owing to several converging factors. First, is the growing recognition that biodiversity is threatened, and second, there is a need for collective effort among the public to improve the state of biodiversity, driven by human activities. Amongst the important biodiversity components is Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) which underpin crucial roles in the ecosystem. Although Lepidoptera has been a major field of study for the past decades, its ecology and distribution have only recently gained important attention among the public, particularly in West Africa. This paper reports on the number of butterflies and moths recorded for Nigeria on the LepiMap database. The database contains 1578 records from January 2010 up to August 2021, from 98 quarter-degree grid cells of the 1306 grid cells in Nigeria (7.5% of grid cells). There are 1219 recorded identified to species level (77%), with 359 awaiting identifications, mostly moths. The number of Lepidopterans recorded was 219 species belonging to 16 families. The most frequently recorded species were Catopsilia florella (28 grid cells, 64 records), Telchinia serena (27 grid cells, 61 records), and Danaus chrysippus alcippus (23 grid cells, 49 records). One of the most important successes of LepiMap during the last three years in Nigeria was the increase in the number of observers and coverage by 600%, which is crucial to gathering lepidopteran mapping data for conservation action. It is recommended that data collection be geared toward areas having no or low coverage, yet refreshing old records are also important for understanding changes in species composition across grid cells.

Preliminary studies on butterfly fauna of Narmada Nagar town, Dist. Khandwa M.P

Butterflies are highly diverse animals and most studied group of insects. Butterflies are easily identified and very useful to biodiversity survey, they are very sensitive and severely affected by environmental fluctuations. The Indian subcontinent bearing a diverse climate and host vegetations which gives support to nearly 1500 species of butterflies. Since eighteen century so many studies on butterflies have done in different parts of globe. According to different studies the population of butterflies and other insects is declining day by day, the diversity of butterflies was recorded in Narmada Nagar town dist. Khandwa during august 2022 to October 2022. A total of 621 individuals belong to 35 species from 4 families i.e. Nymphalidae, Papilionidae, Lycanidae and Pieridae. Family nymphalidae was found dominant with 22 species while only 3 species recorded from family pieridae, both Lycanidae and papilionidae families represented by 5 species each, grass yellow, common crow and lime pansy were found dominant species with highest number of individuals during the study period, the dominance of these species was because of presence of their larval host plants in this area. . No previous studies were done in this area that’s why we cannot calculate whether the butterfly fauna of this area is increasing or decreasing; the present study is the first attempt to determine the status and distribution of butterflies which were dwelling in and around the town Narmada Nagar, during the study period higher species richness and abundance of butterflies were recorded in the month of September while least number of butterflies was recorded in July.

Butterfly fauna (insecta: Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea) and larval host plant in Bongaon town, West Bengal, India

An appraisal of butterfly species diversity was carried out in the suburban town of Bongaon, southern West Bengal, India whose butterfly faunal diversity remained undocumented. A total of 76 species of butterflies were recorded from October 2018 to October 2019. The highest number of butterflies were recorded belonging to the family Nymphalidae (27 species), followed by Lycaenidae (21 species), Hesperiidae (13 species), Pieridae (8 species) and Papilionidae (7 species). Among the 76 butterfly species that have been recorded, nine species come under the protection category as per the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Over the study period, 54 species of larval host plants were also documented. This communication will be the first comprehensive work on butterflies of Bongaon town and serve as baseline data for future research on the butterfly.

FLUKTUASI KELIMPAHAN DAN KERAGAMAN KUPU-KUPU (PAPILIONOIDEA) DI HUTAN KOTA ARBORETUM CIBUBUR JAKARTA

The Arboretum City Forest is located in Cibubur, East Jakarta, in this area there is biodiversity, one of which is butterflies. Butterflies act as an indicator of environmental change, in a habitat. There are two types of habitats in this urban forest, open and closed habitats, which greatly affect the diversity of butterflies. This study aims to determine the diversity of butterflies in the two habitats. The research was conducted in May 2021. The method used was a quantitative descriptive method, and the plot was carried out by purposive sampling. The study was carried out 4 times in each habitat (3 plots), with an interval of 1 week of observation. The research was conducted from 08:30 to 12:30, using insect nets and digital cameras. The number of butterflies found in open habitats was more (39 species, 177 individuals) than in closed habitats (25 species. 94 individuals). Based on, and the diversity of butterflies found shows a significant correlation with habitat conditions. In open forest habitats it is more suitable for butterflies. This difference is strongly influenced by the environmental conditions of the habitat, especially light, and plant diversity.

Accelerated butterfly counting with vertex priority on bipartite graphs

Bipartite graphs are of great importance in many real-world applications. Butterfly, which is a complete 2 times 2 biclique, plays a key role in bipartite graphs. In this paper, we investigate the problem of efficient counting the number of butterflies. The most advanced techniques are based on enumerating wedges which is the dominant cost of counting butterflies. Nevertheless, the existing algorithms cannot efficiently handle large-scale bipartite graphs. This becomes a bottleneck in large-scale applications. In this paper, instead of the existing layer-priority-based techniques, we propose a vertex-priority-based paradigm {mathsf {BFC}}-{mathsf {VP}} to enumerate much fewer wedges; this leads to a significant improvement of the time complexity of the state-of-the-art algorithms. In addition, we present cache-aware strategies to further improve the time efficiency while theoretically retaining the time complexity of {mathsf {BFC}}-{mathsf {VP}}. We also show that our proposed techniques can work efficiently in external and parallel contexts. Moreover, we study the butterfly counting problem on batch-dynamic graphs. Specifically, given a bipartite graph G and a batch-update of edges B, we aim to maintain the number of butterflies in G. To tackle this problem, fast vertex-priority-based algorithms are proposed with optimizations for reducing the computation of existing wedges in G. Our extensive empirical studies demonstrate that the proposed techniques significantly outperform the baseline solutions on real datasets.