Nuclear Submarines Research Articles

A Nuclear Submarine in the South Atlantic: The Framing of Threats and Deterrence

Abstract: In this article, we analyse one aspect of Brazilian nuclear policy during the tenure of the Workers Party (2003–2016): the development of a nuclear-propelled submarine. We propose that the project of building a nuclear-propelled submarine has become possible partly because of the mobilisation of a set of arguments for the construction of the South Atlantic as a strategic area, framed in terms of security and development. On the other hand, we contend that the need for a nuclear-propelled submarine is framed through the mobilisation of a specific notion of deterrence. In other words, we claim that the notions of ‘strategic area’, ‘general deterrence’, ‘conventional deter-rence’, and ‘deterrence by denial’ can help us analyse the fundamental aspects involved in the fram-ing of the South Atlantic as a security concern, justifying the nuclear-propelled submarine project. Keywords: Nuclear Submarine; Threats; Deterrence; South Atlantic; Brazilian Nuclear Policy. Introduction In this article, we analyse one aspect of Brazilian nuclear policy during the tenure of the Workers Party (2003–2016): the development of a nuclear-propelled submarine. There are three main sets of arguments put forward by the Brazilian ruling elites for the nuclear-propelled submarine project: first, the concern with the autonomy of the country’s foreign policy and even the prospects of becoming a major power and joining the UN Security Council; second, the association between development and control of nuclear technology (Herz, Dawood and Lage, forthcoming); and finally, the arguments for the construction and consolidation of the South Atlantic as a strategic area. In this text, we focus on the third set of arguments.

Sonar technology and underwater warfare from World War I to the launch of USS Nautilus in 1954, the first nuclear submarine

Sonar research began in the First World War to curb the U-boat menace. Radical methods had to be devised both organizationally and technically to combat this new form of warfare. Civilian scientists were drafted into naval research. A new field of science was created: underwater acoustics for passive listening, and ultrasonic echo-ranging for active detection of submarines. If the war had lasted only a few more months, prototype Asidic equipment (the Royal Navy’s name for sonar) would have gone operational. During the interwar years the American and Royal Navies developed their sonar “searchlight” systems, while before 1935 the German Navy concentrated on sophisticated passive listening arrays (incorporating American WWI research) to protect their capital ships from enemy submarines. Searchlight sonar technology evolved sharply in WWII. The nuclear submarine in 1954 required a complete rethink of the sonar scanning techniques developed over the previous 40 years. This lecture is based on full access to naval documents and interviews with scientists involved in this work in Britain and the USA for my book Seek and Strike (HMSO, 1984).

Sonar science and technology in Russia in the 20th century

Russian underwater acoustics traces its roots to the 19th century empirical sound propagation studies on the Sea Devil submarine and theoretical predictions of guided propagation in shallow water. During the World War II, the acute needs to save lives and contribute to the war effort led to rapid expansion of acoustic research and development, especially in mine countermeasures. The growth continued in the post-war years until the USSR collapse and was inspired by the opportunities for naval and civilian applications, which had been opened up by the discovery of the SOFAR channel and deeper understanding of the ocean physics. This paper will briefly review some milestones of underwater acoustic research and development in Russia, from Mikhail Lomonosov to Leonid Brekhovskikh and from Admiral Makarov’s current velocity probe to sonars on early nuclear-powered submarines. Applications of the sonar to improve navigation and characterize the underwater environment will be emphasized.

Emerging Paradigm of the Indian Ocean: Arihant’s Prowl and its Regional Implications

The Indian Ocean has traditionally been less contentious with respect to nuclear issues but recent fielding of the nuclear submarine by India has introduced a new dimension in the strategic stability of the region. Though the development of nuclear submarine is China-centric, yet, the littoral states of the Indian Ocean have started feeling perturbed. The Indian ambitious naval expansion plan, aligned with its evolving maritime strategy, has adversely affected the security dynamics of the Indian Ocean. Thus, the Indian Ocean has become an avenue of the intersecting interests of many regional (China and India) and extra-regional states. The predominant interest of extra-regional powers has been economic, embedded in the security concerns. In response to the Indian nuclear explosions in 1998, Pakistan compelled to became an overt nuclear state, yet, had no inclinations for taking nuclearisation to sea. However, the extraordinary development of induction of nuclear submarine in the Indian naval inventory has forced many regional states to premeditate their options in line with their security calculus and compulsions, which has resulted in the emergence of a new paradigm of strategic competition between India and China in the Indian Ocean.

Aquatic refuges for surviving a global catastrophe

Recently many methods for reducing the risk of human extinction have been suggested, including building refuges underground and in space. Here we will discuss the perspective of using military nuclear submarines or their derivatives to ensure the survival of a small portion of humanity who will be able to rebuild human civilization after a large catastrophe. We will show that it is a very cost-effective way to build refuges, and viable solutions exist for various budgets and timeframes. Nuclear submarines are surface independent, and could provide energy, oxygen, fresh water and perhaps even food for their inhabitants for years. They are able to withstand close nuclear explosions and radiation. They are able to maintain isolation from biological attacks and most known weapons. They already exist and need only small adaptation to be used as refuges. But building refuges is only “Plan B” of existential risk preparation; it is better to eliminate such risks than try to survive them.

William Morris and the atomic

Abstract A Provisional Memorial to Nuclear Disarmament was made in response to a visit to HMS Courageous, a decommissioned nuclear powered submarine furnished with William Morris ‘Rose’ fabrics. The Ministry of Defence commissioned the fabric for its nuclear submarines for over 30 years, from the 1960s through to the late 1990s, including the Vanguard Class nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines that are armed with Trident nuclear-armed missiles. In the black and white photographs that follow, each of the fourteen works is represented twice, from the front and the back. The works consist of old projection screens in which the white screen fabric has been removed and replaced. The fronts of the screens are mostly painted black, with some Morris patterns. On the back of the screens William Morris patterned fabrics have been painted with anti-nuclear slogans and signs.

Diagonal form fast multipole singular boundary method applied to the solution of high‐frequency acoustic radiation and scattering

SummaryThe singular boundary method (SBM) is a recent strong‐form boundary collocation method that uses a linear combination of the fundamental solution of the governing equation to approximate the field variables. Because of its full interpolation matrix, the SBM solution encounters the high computational complexity and storage requirement that limit its applications to large‐scale engineering problems. This paper presents a way to overcome this drawback by introducing the diagonal form fast multipole method. A diagonal form fast multipole singular boundary method is then developed to reduce the computational operations of the SBM with direct solvers from O(N3) to O(NlogN), where N is the number of unknowns. The proposed method works well for acoustic radiation and scattering with nondimensional wave number kD<110 (k is the wave number and D the maximum diameter of the computational domain). Several numerical experiments are provided to show the efficiency and accuracy of the present strategy, including the radiation from a nuclear submarine and the scattering from an airplane. The numerical results clearly demonstrate that the present diagonal form fast multipole singular boundary method breaks the limitations of the SBM and successfully simulates the large‐scale acoustic problems with more than one million unknowns on a desktop computer. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

NAVY HYGIENIST YU. N. PETROV: THE CALL OF DUTY AND THE COURSE OF CREATIVITY

The paper sheds light on several episodes in the life of Yuri Nikolayevich Petrov, Candidate of Medical Sciences, navy doctor, radiation hygienist, veteran of the Department of Navy and Radiation Hygiene of S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, the author of dozens of inventions and innovation proposals. Many of navy hygienists in Russia esteem Yu. N. Petrov as their tutor. The principal features of his personality have ever been independence in thought, invariable adherence to principles, exclusive modesty, and outstanding benevolence. His life-long motto is the following phase taken from his autobiographic essay: «In any routine, it is possible and essential to find its interesting aspects and thus make it fascinating. Ever since, the routine turns into pleasure and life becomes wonderful». The highlights of his professional activities include involvement in the liquidation of the consequences of K-8 submarine wreck (13.10.1960), the detection of radioactive cloud after nuclear tests in China (1968), the discovery of a foreign nuclear submarine beneath the aircraft-carrying cruiser Minsk, involvement in radiation control during the first trips of soviet nuclear submarines and in associated studies of internal irradiation in humans, involvement in developing and implementing of systems for environmental radiation control at facilities having terrestrial nuclear reactors, studies of on-board water decontamination, and, after retirement, fifteen years of practice in the sphere of consumer rights protection.

Submarine medicine in indian navy: A 50-year Odyssey

The Submarine arm of the Indian Navy is in its Golden Jubilee year, celebrating 50 glorious years of service to the Nation. From a small force of Foxtrot class, it leapfrogged into high technology boats in just 25 years of its coming into being. Forays into operating a nuclear Submarine have brought the Navy into the fold of of modern Submarine powers. In this journey, it has also graduated from acquiring Submarines from foreign nations to the present day indigenous construction of both conventional and nuclear boats. Submarine Medicine has been an inseparable part of strengthening the Naval capability throughout this endeavor. This article briefly describes the tale of Submarine medicine in India since its origin, highlighting significant milestones.

Analysis of the flight trajectory characteristics of North Korea SLBM due to launching mode

The current research aims to simulate the flight trajectory of the North Korean submarine–launched ballistic missile (SLBM) and analyze its flight characteristics based on its range control method. Recently, North Korea has completed the test flight of SLBM and it has become a significant threat to international security. North Korea obtained SLBM technologies from Russia while disbanding decommissioned Russian submarines, and it is suspected that North Korea will continue to experiment in related fields along with its continued attempts to miniaturize nuclear weapons. If North Korea completes the development of SLBM and deploys the missiles, it means the completion of the three asymmetric warfare elements (nuclear weapon, ballistic missile, and submarine) and they will be the most significant threats to northeast Asia. Therefore, it is imperative to scientifically analyze SLBM to adeptly respond to such threat. One characteristic of SLBM is capability of attacking its target in a variety of ways based on its range control method. Based on this fact, the current research derives the flight equation of North Korean SLBM and simulates its flight trajectory based on various range control methods. The flight trajectories that we derive can be used to establish an effective anti-ballistic missile defense system in northeast Asia.

The Brazilian Navy's nuclear-powered submarine program

ABSTRACTThis article discusses the main aspects of the Brazilian Navy's nuclear-powered submarine program. It first discusses the Brazilian perception that the restrictions imposed by the world powers related to so-called sensitive technologies are a tool to maintain the status quo and hamper the technological progress of developing countries. The article then focuses on the political, economic, technological, and strategic reasons behind the creation and maintenance of the autonomous nuclear-propulsion submarine program. Next, the article examines strategic aspects of the program and their institutionalization in high-level defense documents, informing Brazil's opposition to adopting additional nonproliferation measures. Finally, it discusses Brazilian policy toward the South Atlantic Ocean and the role of the nuclear-powered submarine. The article seeks to shed light on the main reasons that led Brazil to build and maintain such submarines and maps the program's phases of development.

External perceptions of Brazil's nuclear policy: views from Argentina and the United States

ABSTRACTBrazil, a developing country with an advanced nuclear program, presents an interesting case for observers of nuclear politics. Brazil is one of a handful of countries that possess uranium-enrichment technology, one of three countries in Latin America that produce nuclear power, and the only country without nuclear weapons to pursue an ambitious nuclear-powered submarine program. Among external views on Brazil's nuclear politics, the perceptions of Argentina and the United States matter most. With Argentina, Brazil shares responsibility for regional security. The two countries’ commitment to a bilateral nuclear safeguards arrangement contributes to a peaceful environment in the region. The United States will continue to set the tone in global nuclear matters and thus its views of Brazil's role in the nuclear field will continue to matter to Brasília, even as Brazil's political and economic crises have thrown the country’s nuclear future into uncertain territory.

The evolution of Brazil's nuclear intentions

ABSTRACTExisting literature usually portrays Brazil as a country that set out to build nuclear weapons but ended up “rolling back” its original plans while keeping a nuclear “hedge” for an uncertain future, evidenced by Brazil's investment in uranium enrichment and its commitment to building a nuclear-powered submarine. This article draws on the historical record to offer a more nuanced view of Brazil's nuclear intentions as they evolved. It also focuses on the role of external pressure—mostly from Argentina and the United States—in shaping those motivations.

Is the SSBN Deterrent Vulnerable to Autonomous Drones?

It has been claimed that drones, such as autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicles, will be able to search the oceans for nuclear-powered submarines carrying nuclear-tipped weapons (SSBNs). Deployed in large numbers, it is posited that these drones would make the continuous at-sea deterrent obsolete. Jonathan Gates argues that few of the sensors carried by these drones would be able to detect a deeply submerged submarine, even if it were large. The range of these sensors, however sensitive, is very limited. Given the immense size of the submarines’ potential operating area, the chance of detection is negligible, even if many drones were deployed. Despite this, there may still be a role for these drones in assisting anti-submarine forces to carry out their operations. This article considers these issues as they apply to the UK’s SSBNs.

Open Innovation: Revealing and Engagement in Open Data Organisations Franz

Among many factors, we conclude it is difficult fully to comprehend the persistent intensity of official UK attachments to nuclear power, without also considering aims to maintain nuclear submarine capabilities. Yet this aspect is entirely undocumented anywhere in UK energy policy literatures. To acknowledge this, is not to entertain a conspiracy theory. It can be understood instead, in terms of more distributed and relational dynamics of power. Building on literatures in political science, we refer to this as a ‘deep incumbency complex’. Such an evidently under-visible phenomenon would hold important implications not only for UK nuclear strategies, but also the wider state of British democracy.

Understanding the Intensity of UK Policy Commitments to Nuclear Power

The UK Government has long been planning to build up to 16 GWe of new nuclear power – aproportional level of support unparalleled in other liberalised energy markets. Despite many challenging developments, these general nuclear attachments show no sign of easing. With many viable alternative strategies for efficient, secure, low-carbon energy services, it is difficult to explain these commitments solely in terms of officially-declared policy rationales.A variety of possible reasons are suggested for the persistent intensity of UK attachments to civil nuclear power. Each is taken here as a basis for systematic hypothesis testing. And one additional hypothesis is also interrogated that has hitherto been virtually entirely neglected–about maintainingnational capabilities to build and operate nuclear-propelled submarines. To explore and test this idea, this paper analyses linkages between UK military and civilian nuclear sectorsin terms of high-level policy processes around supply chains, skills and expertise. Especially interesting is the critical juncture between 2003 -2006, whenstated policy moved radically from nuclear power as ‘unattractive’to calls for a ‘nuclear renaissance’. In this period,especially intense activity can be observed around UK nuclear submarine capabilities. Among manyfactors, we conclude it is difficult fully to comprehend the persistent intensity of official UK attachments to nuclear power, without also considering aims to maintain nuclear submarine capabilities. Yet thisaspect is entirely undocumented anywhere in UK energy policy literatures. To acknowledge this,is not to entertain a conspiracy theory. It can be understood instead, in terms of more distributed and relational dynamics of power. Building on literatures in political science, we refer to this as a‘deep incumbency complex’. Such an evidently under-visible phenomenon would hold important implications not only for UK nuclear strategies, but also the wider state of British democracy.

Technological Perspectives for Propulsion on Nuclear Attack Submarines

This work aimed at proposing a new combination of technologies to improve military performances and reduce costs of nuclear attack submarines, without overlooking safety constraints. The last generation of nuclear attack submarines increased size to meet safety and operational requirements, imposing huge burden on costs side, reducing fleet size. The limitations of current Technologies employed were qualitatively discussed, explaining their limitations. There are new technologies (plate and shell heat exchangers) and architectural choices, like passive safety, and segregation of safety and normal systems, which may lead to reduction of costs and size of submarines. A qualitative analysis was provided on this combination of technologies, stressing their commercial nature and maturity, which reduced risks. The qualitative analysis showed the strong and weak points of this proposal, which adopted the concept of strength in numbers. Concluding, new Technologies enabled the existence of 3800 t nuclear attack submarines with powerful propulsion systems and good acoustic discretion.

Impacts on the terrestrial environment in case of a hypothetical accident involving the recovery of the dumped Russian submarine K-27

Objects containing radioactivity have been routinely dumped in Arctic waters near NW Russia up until the 1990s. One of the most radioactive objects in this region, the nuclear submarine K-27, was dumped in Stepogovo Fjord and contained spent nuclear fuel (SNF). Although the two K-27 submarine reactors were mothballed before dumping, concerns about the potential long term risks of contamination remain and plans to retrieve and decommission K-27 exist. In this article, human dose and environmental impact aseessments are presented for two possible future scenarios involving: (1) an ingress of water into a reactor in situ leading to a spontaneous chain reaction (SCR) and (2) an on-board fire when SNF is being removed at the mainland decommissiong site at Gremhika Bay on the Kola Peninsula. Assessments have been completed using conservative assumptions, focusing on possible effects to Norwegian territory. Atmospheric transport and deposition of radioactivity was modelled near field and regionally, using appropriate models, whilst human doses and environmental exposures were modelled using a standard IAEA approach and the ERICA tool, respectively. Results indicate that large areas of Norwegian territory could be affected by fallout from the Gremhika scenario, especially in the north, though at levels two orders of magnitude lower than those observed after the Chernobyl accident. Potential doses, primarily due to ground shine, to a critical group of personnel on-site at Stepogovo resulting from a SCR could require preventative measures based on ICRP recommendations (20–100 mSv). Doses to non-human biota in Norway for the Gremhika scenario would be negligible, typical of background dose rates for terrestrial organisms.

Conceptual aspects of melting unit vessel cooling by heavy liquid metal coolant

The article presents a conceptual analysis of the feasibility of lead–bismuth coolant application for cooling the melting unit steel vessel designed for implementation of a new efficient radwaste reprocessing technique. In support of the lead–bismuth coolant feasibility, the main advantages and specific features of its application are presented, taking into account significant experience acquired in Russia in handling this coolant (nuclear submarines reactor units and circulation loops), availability of job-proved methods and equipment for the coolant quality control, coolant properties ensuring fire and explosion safety and heat removal capability under high temperature and low pressure conditions. Preliminary calculated estimates were made as for temperature distributions during lead–bismuth cooling of the melting unit steel vessel. Calculations were made for the melting unit normal operation, in the presence of refractory coating and slag lining of a certain thickness formed on the vessel inner surface.Based on the results of the calculated temperature distribution estimates, it can be concluded that lead–bismuth cooling of the melting unit steel vessel in normal operation (i.e. in the presence of refractory coating and slag lining on the vessel inner surface) provides an opportunity to maintain steel surface temperatures which do not exceed the limits at an acceptable flow rate. Data presented in this article have been obtained for the first time and may be useful in designing melting units for radwaste reprocessing.

Qualitative and quantitative assessment of microstructure in Al-B4C metal matrix composite processed by modified stir casting technique

Recently, boron carbide reinforced aluminum matrix composites have witnessed an unprecedented technological significance as a structural neutron-shielding material for nuclear waste and nuclear submarines. The present study deals with processing of 6061Al-B4C composites containing different wt.% of B4C using modified stir casting method with bottom pouring arrangement. The dispersion of B4C particles in the aluminum matrix, interfacial characteristics and microstructural features were qualitatively characterized using field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and optical microscope. Microstructural characterization revealed that the dispersion of B4C particles in the matrix was relatively uniform and at some locations small scale agglomeration and clustering of particles were observed. Particle size distribution has been studied for the quantitative description of agglomeration of B4C particles in the matrix which reveals the presence of small scale agglomeration of particles. Homogeneity and randomness of B4C particles in the matrix has been calculated by quadrat method. The results show a random spatial distribution of particles with small scale clustering. Microindentation test were performed on the fabricated composite and obtained results were statistically evaluated.