Nothofagus Menziesii Research Articles

Ecology ofNothofagus menziesiiin the catlins ecological region, South-east Otago, New Zealand (I) seed production, viability, and dispersal

Abstract Production, viability, and dispersal of Nothofagus menziesii seed in the Catlins Ecological Region were measured and found to be similar to records from elsewhere in New Zealand. Seed production was greater at a low (150 m) than a high (450 m) altitude site, but seed soundness was higher at the latter. Sound seed had a germination rate of 80–95%, dropping to 50% after two years storage. Seed was dispersed at least 250 m from the nearest parent plant at both sites, and dispersal was more effective downslope than upslope. The distribution of isolated stands of N. menziesii in the Catlins Ecological Region suggests that seed can be dispersed, probably by wind, up to 6 km from the parent plant.

Aggregate Rays in New Zealand Nothofagus Blume (Fagaceae) Stem Wood and their Influence on Vessel Distribution

Aggregate rays occur in the stem wood of Nothofagus solandri var. cliffortioides (Hook. f.) Poole (mountain beech), N. solandri var. solandri (Hook. f.) Gerst. (black beech), N. truncata (Col.) Ckn. (hard beech), and N. fusca (Hook. f.) Gerst. (red beech), but not in N. menziesii (Hook. f.) Gerst. (silver beech). The composite structures visible in transversely sawn wood consist of groups of narrow xylem rays separated by fibres; vessels are frequently absent. The influence of aggregate rays on vessei distribution was studied using scanning electron microscopy and tested statistically. Indented growth ring boundaries are associated with the presence of aggregate rays. Aggregate rays occur in saplings. In larger trees aggregate rays taper out beyond 6 cm from the stem centre.

Forest dynamics and disturbance in a beech/hardwood forest, Fiordland, New Zealand

Valley floor beech/hardwood forests in northern Fiordland, New Zealand are dominated by Nothofagus menziesii, Weinmannia racemosa, and several species of subcanopy hardwoods. Population structures and replacement patterns, as determined from size- and age-structure and spatial pattern analysis, reflect the effects of periodic disturbances. The differential expression of aspects of species life history resulted in several regeneration strategies for Nothofagus and Weinmannia. Frequent minor treefalls allowed sporadic regeneration of N. menziesii and W. racemosa on logs in canopy openings resulting in all-aged stands. Infrequent catastrophic landslides and extensive windthrow (e.g., 0.2–0.5 ha) resulted in even-aged stands of N. menziesii or N. menziesii/W. racemosa with little subsequent regeneration. Other hardwoods, although rare on the forest floor in dense-canopied even-aged forest, were numerous on fallen logs and in the Nothofagus canopy crowns of all-aged forests. Establishment above competing dense fern understoreys on the forest floor and outside the browse zone of introduced deer and wapiti appeared critical for the regenerative success of many species, especially subcanopy hardwoods. The gap-phase replacement pattern for N. menziesii parallels that of N. cunninghamii in the rainforests of Tasmania but contrasts with a continual replacement pattern for N. menziesii in many pure beech forests of New Zealand.

Altitudinal variation in stomatal conductance, nitrogen content and leaf anatomy in different plant life forms in New Zealand.

This study is part of a series of investigations on the influence of altitude on structure and function of plant leaves. Unlike most other mountain areas, the Southern Alps of New Zealand provide localities where physiologically effective moisture stress occurs neither at high nor at low elevation, but the changes in temperature and radiation with elevation are similar or even steeper than in most other regions. In comparison with results from other mountains, where moisture may impair plant functioning at low elevation, this study allows an estimation of the relative role of water for the expression of various leaf features typically associated with alpine plants. Maximum leaf diffusive conductance (g), leaf nitrogen content (LN), stomatal density (n) and distribution, as well as area (A), thickness (d) and specific area (SLA) of leaves were studied. Three different plant life forms were investigated over their full altitudinal range (m): trees, represented by Nothofagus menziesii (1,200 m), ericaceous dwarf shrubs (1,700 m), and herbaceous plants of the genus Ranunculus (2,500 m). In all three life forms g, LN, and n increased, while SLA and A decreased with elevation. Recent investigations have found similar trends in other mountains from the temperate zone, but the changes are larger in New Zealand than elsewhere. Herbs show the greatest differences, followed by shrubs and then trees.It is concluded that g is dependent upon light climate rather than water supply, whereas SLA and related structural features appear to be controlled by the temperature regime, as they show similar altitudinal changes under different light and moisture gradients. The higher leaf nitrogen content found at high elevations in all three life forms, suggests that metabolic activity of mature leaves is not restricted by low nitrogen supply at high altitude. In general, the leaves of herbaceous plants show more pronounced structural and functional changes with altitude than the leaves of shrubs and trees.

Seasonality of litter-inhabiting invertebrates in two native-forest communities of Orongorongo Valley, New Zealand

Abstract Invertebrates were collected with equal sampling intensity from sites in two native-forest communities near Wellington, New Zealand for 14 months. More species and individuals occurred in the more botanically diverse lowland broadleaf- podocarp forest than in the less diverse high-altitude silver beech forest. Of the 124 species caught (270 758 individuals), 91 (156 285) occurred in broadleaf-podocarp and 81 (114 473) in silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) forest (68 species were common to both forests). Although many invertebrates were caught throughout the year, catches were significantly higher in autumn than in other seasons. The catches of many invertebrates were positively correlated with temperature but not with rainfall. Invertebrates were caught over a longer period of the year than reported from temperate forests in the Northern Hemisphere. This feature is a reflection of the oceanic climate of New Zealand where climatic extremes are moderate and therefore the invertebrate activity is n...

Red beech death in the Maruia Valley South Island, New Zealand

Abstract Many red beech trees died in parts of the Maruia Valley between 1978 and 1980 following an outbreak of the scale insect Inglisia fagi. Annual diameter increment of trees and climatic data suggest the primary cause to be a series of spring droughts between 1974 and 1978. In the worst affected stands of mixed red and silver beech a large proportion of the red beech trees died. Release from competition was reflected in the greatly increased growth rate of the residual silver beech which generally was not heavily attacked by the scale insect; early response of surviving red beech was limited because of reduced foliage.

Seasonality of pitfall trapped invertebrates in three types of native forest, Orongorongo Valley, New Zealand

Abstract The abundance and seasonality of invertebrates were studied in 3 forest communities near Wellington, New Zealand by pitfall trapping at equal intensity for 14 months. Of 238 species trapped (93 461 individuals), 172 (50 204) occurred in mixed broadleaf-podocarp, 98 (23 072) in hard beech (Nothofagus truncata), and 107 (20 185) in silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) forest. The composition of the invertebrate fauna differed amongst forest communities. Although many invertebrates were active throughout the year, significantly more were caught in autumn, and fewest in winter. The temporal distribution of several species was correlated positively with temperature, but very few species showed a correlation with rainfall. More species and individuals occurred in the more botanically diverse broadleaf-podocarp forest than in the beech forests. Species composition was more diverse in the lowland broadleaf-podocarp forest than in the high-altitude silver beech forest.

Tree-growth-climate relationships in subalpineNothofagusforests, South Island, New Zealand

Abstract Detailed analyses of tree-growth-climate relationships in New Zealand trees using dendrochronological techniques are presented. Principal-components multiple-regression analysis (response function analysis) was used to assess the relationship between variations in annual growth ring widths of subalpine Nothofagus menziesii and N. solandri trees, and temperature and precipitation variables in the South Island of New Zealand. In calibrating the regression equations, approximately four times as much of the variance in the tree-ring chronologies was explained by climate variables, than by previous growth. Temperature during the austral summer months (December to March) was found to be the most strongly related to tree growth with increased growth occurring during growing seasons with warmer temperatures. This result is in close agreement with the findings of phenological studies of Nothofagus tree-growth.

Vegetation and climate history of the Longwood Range, South Island, New Zealand, 12 000 B. P. to the present

Abstract Raised bogs on the crest and at the foot of the Longwood Range (altitude 700 m) in western Southland provide a pollen record of vegetation Change which spans the last 12 000 years. Before 12 000 yr B.P. coastal Southland was covered with a sparse grassland-shrubland. After 12 000 yr B.P. Coprosma-Myrsine shrub land spread, and a low Hoheria forest established on the Longwood Range in response to ameliorating climate. Throughout this period the climate remained cool, variable, and perhaps subject to frequent outbreaks of cold subpolar air. There was no significant spread of tall forest. At about 9400 yr B.P. Podocarpus spicatus-Dacrycarpus dacrydioides forest replaced the shrubland, and remained dominant until 7000 yr B.P. Climate during this interval was warmer than at present, but also slightly drier. Dacrydium cupressinum and Nothofagus menziesii began to spread from about 7000 yr B.P., a process that accelerated after 4000 yr B.P. and slowed or stopped by 2500 yr B.P. Changes since 7000 yr B.P. are largely attributed to a shift towards a wetter, cooler, and perhaps more stormy climate which was the consequence of an increased south-westerly airflow. POlynesian deforestation of the region began at about 900 yr B.P. but major destruction of the lowland forest and its replacement with fernshrubland occurred at about 700 yr B.P.

Utilisation of pressure-volume techniques and non-linear least squares analysis to investigate site induced stresses in evergreen trees.

Detailed statistical analysis of data obtained from five species of New Zealand native trees was used to develop an empirical model of pressure-volume curves. The model combines an exponential turgor function with a hyperbolic osmotic function and provides a very good fit to all data sets. The resultant function permits precise calculation of the bulk modulus of elasticity and turgor loss point from simple manipulation of the coefficients as well as providing the usual estimates of osmotic potential and free water content. The use of several water relations parameters, rather than one or two, each expressing different ecological aspects has permitted a better insight into the adaptability of the species.The data was obtained as part of an investigation into the causes of forest mortality to examine the tissue water relations of the principal species and to assess their ecological status. For all parameters highly significant differences were found between species. Silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) and quintinia (Quintinia acutifolia) or tawari (Ixerba brexioides) are well separated and are consistently placed in opposing groups by the parameters. Osmotic potential proved to be of limited value for differentiating sites possibly because of the greater amplitude of diurnal variation compared with the site differences and also because of large within site variation. However variations in the pressure potential at the turgor loss point, which was closely correlated with osmotic potential, discriminated the levels of effective precipitation at the study sites, and the drought tolerance of the species.For one species, tawari, it proved possible to classify the sites on the basis of water content at the turgor loss point and osmotic potential using discriminant analysis. Variation in the water potential at the turgor loss point, which was closely correlated with osmotic potential, can be used to rank the species in order of drought adaptability and this was found to coincide with their order of permanence on the site. The bulk modulus of elasticity and the coefficient of elasticity are closely linked but their value in the ecological comparisons was limited by higher variability than found for other parameters. Ranking of the species using the variability of the parameters indicates the presence of to two distinct survival strategies; stress avoidance and stress tolerance. The two canopy species utilise opposing strategies and may be less at risk than the seral plants which combine both strategies. The data provides evidence for current stress on the unhealthy site which most stongly affects the seral species.

Primary succession in Westland National Park and its vicinity, New Zealand

Abstract This paper concludes a series on the vegetation of Westland National Park with an outline of the development of vegetation on new surfaces. A particularly long succession, well dated over its latest 14 000 years, is taking place on surfaces formed during the fluctuating retreat of low-altitude glaciers. Surfaces have been classed as gravel slopes, alluvial flats, loose boulders, solid bedrock, landslide scars, and talus slopes. In general, they show a development from open pioneer vegetation, through shrubland and seral forest to “climax forest”, and eventually, a deterioration to heathland vegetation where soils change to gley podzols with impervious iron pans. On poorly drained areas, successions lead to infertile swamps. Successions at subalpine and alpine levels are slower and none in the district are older than the end of the last major glaciation. Consequently, they do not reach a stage equivalent to the low-altitude heathlands, except where the former glaciers left scoured bedrock that is still almost bare of soil. Nothofagus menziesii has entered the south-eastern part of the Park, apparently late in post-glacial time. Its rapid colonisation of new surfaces contrasts both with its very slow marginal invasion of other forest communities, and with the delayed entry of native conifers into primary successions where beech is absent.

Effects of pulp freezing and frozen pulp storage on fibre characteristics

A requirement of long-term research on pulp fibres in that the material for study be stored for prolonged periods without deterioration and without changes in properties. In this paper effects of pulp freezing and thawing and of frozen pulp storage on fibre, wet web, and handsheet properties are discussed. A variety of radiata pine kraft pulps, a radiata pine sodium bisulphite pulp, and silver beech and hard beech (Nothofagus species) kraft pulps are examined.

Vegetation associated with kakapo (Strigops habroptilusGray) in Sinbad Gully, Fiordland, New Zealand

Abstract The kakapo, a flightless, nocturnal, browsing parrot, is now known only from a few birds in the Milford Sound area where the forests are mostly unmodified by introduced browsing mammals. In February 1975 three male birds had courtship territories at 600–900m altitude in the head of Sinbad Gully, where sleep slopes, waterfalls, and avalanches largely determine the vegetation pattern. The three courtship territories comprised track and bowl systems in ridge-crest silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) forest. A garden territory or “kakapo garden” is described; it is a scrub-covered debris fan, floristically very rich particularly with berry-bearing shrubs, where kakapo seem to feed. Nearby areas of forest and scrub, which show no sign of use by kakapo, may not be used by the birds because of lack of food or shelter.

Ecology of Podocarpus hallii in Central Otago, New Zealand

Summary There appears to be no environmental stress severely limiting the growth of established trees of Podocarpus hallii on the Pisa Range in Central Otago. In the sparse stands studied on the Range, trees grow best at their lower limit and, although initiating shoot growth later than the same species in a moist forest environment, achieve comparable though erratic shoot extension for the season. Temperature records during two years indicate that the mean summer isotherm at the trees' upper limit is considerably higher than that recorded for tree lines, either elsewhere in New Zealand or abroad. Since P. hallii does not appear to attain the climatically imposed limits which doubtless exist in the region, it is hardly surprising that the species has proved to be a poor dendroclimatic indicator. Periodic fires probably confine the forest and woodland to their present limits. Extensive log remains and buried charcoals indicate that a mixed forest containing P. hallii, Nothofagus menziesii, and several othe...

The accumulation of tungsten byNothofagus menziesii

The uptake of tungsten by the New Zealand silver beech (Nothofagus menziesii) was investigated by pot trials with seedlings of this species in order to obtain information on the mode of their accumulation of this element as a preliminary to further field studies involving biogeochemical prospecting. Tungsten accumulation was most pronounced in the roots. Under controlled glasshouse conditions, the concentrations of this element in the roots, stems and leaves, were all related to levels in the soil.

A permanent quadrat in Wind-thrown Red Beech Forest, Eglinton Valley, Fiordland

We record the establishment in December, 1969, of a permanent quadrat in an area of red beech forest that was almost completely wind-thrown by a severe storm which swept southern New Zealand during late October, 1968. On a permanently marked 20 × 50 m plot adjacent to the Milford Sound highway at Mirror Lake. the surviving vegetation. chiefly herbs. shrubs and young stems of red and silver beech. has been recorded for each of 40 subplots. Locations of beech poles (stems 3 m tall to 10 cm d.b.h.) and occasional surviving trees were plotted. The information has been deposited at Fiordland National Park Headquarters. Te Anau and in the library of this department to be available for anyone wishing to follow the secondary succession.

Prospecting for copper and nickel in New Zealand by statistical analysis of biogeochemical data

Four New Zealand indigenous plant species: Nothofagus fusca, Nothofagus menziesii, Quintinia acutifolia and Weinmannia racemosa together with their associated soils from the Riwaka Basic Complex were analyzed for copper, nickel and zinc in connection with a biogeochemical orientation survey. Statistical analysis showed that the nickel content of ashed leaves of N. fusca and N. menziesii correlated well with the nickel content of the soil. The copper content of the leaf ash of N. fusca gave the best correlation with the copper content of the soil. No significant correlations were obtained for zinc. The effect of pH on the accumulation of the above elements by plants was found to be negligible for copper and zinc in all species, and for nickel in all species except W. racemosa. Data are also presented for interelemental correlations in plants and soils considered separately. It was concluded that the suitability of these New Zealand species for biogeochemical prospecting for copper and nickel in the Riwaka Basic Complex has been demonstrated.

Vegetation studies on Secretary Island, Fiordland

Summary Secretary Island is an area of Fiordland still unmodified by introduced browsing mammals. The original ecological work on the island has been supplemented by later visits, and the classification of communities has been simplified and extended. Sampling by line interception was continued in snow-tussock herbfield and by the quarter method in low forest dominated by Melicytus ramiflorus on exposed coastal talus, as well as in lowland beech-podocarp forest. The earlier conclusions that podocarps are increasing at the expense of beeches near sea level and that silver beech is increasing at the expense of mountain beech are confirmed.

The growth of some New Zealand trees

Summary Growth of Acer pseudoplatanus was compared with the New Zealand species Fuchsia excorticata. Aristotelia serrata, and Hoheria glabrata (deciduous) and Nothofagus menziesii, N. fusca, and N. solandri (evergreen) under long, short, and natural days in a greenhouse and outdoors. Acer rapidly became dormant in short days, as has been reported from the Northern Hemisphere. The New Zealand species, however, continued growth through the summer in all day lengths, and stopped only when temperatures began to decline with the approach of winter. Then all species became dormant, most rapidly in natural day lengths with the plants in short days usually soon following. In Hoheria and Fuchsia, however, dormancy was delayed in short days. In all species it was delayed in long days. It thus appears that the shortening days of autumn are involved in producing the natural dormancy of New Zealand trees, but are effective only in conjunction with declining temperature. In Northern Hemisphere trees, by contrast, it is known that short days fail to bring on dormancy at low temperatures and that low temperatures break dormancy already induced The temperature at which short days became effective for the New Zealand trees was not, however, as low as is needed to break dormancy in Northern trees, for Acer did not come into leaf after wintering in the greenhouse in which the New Zealand trees ceased growth in the winter and came into leaf quite normally the following spring. It thus appears that the winter quiescence of New Zealand trees is different from the dormancy induced by short days in Acer. Internode length was not affected by day length in Aristotelia. but in the rest, including Acer, it was less in short days. All species had shorter internodes outdoors than in the greenhouse. Leaf fall followed dormancy in response to short days in Acer. The native species lost leaves sporadically through the year in controlled day lengths 11 in nature, but the autumn peak periods were earlier out-of-doors than in the greenhouse, indicating an effect of temperature.

The growth of some New Zealand trees

Summary Growth of Acer pseudoplatanus was compared with the New Zealand species Fuchsia excorticata. Aristotelia serrata, and Hoheria glabrata (deciduous) and Nothofagus menziesii, N. fusca, and N. solandri (evergreen) under long, short, and natural days in a greenhouse and outdoors. Acer rapidly became dormant in short days, as has been reported from the Northern Hemisphere. The New Zealand species, however, continued growth through the summer in all day lengths, and stopped only when temperatures began to decline with the approach of winter. Then all species became dormant, most rapidly in natural day lengths with the plants in short days usually soon following. In Hoheria and Fuchsia, however, dormancy was delayed in short days. In all species it was delayed in long days. It thus appears that the shortening days of autumn are involved in producing the natural dormancy of New Zealand trees, but are effective only in conjunction with declining temperature. In Northern Hemisphere trees, by contrast, it is...