Norwegian Olympic Research Articles

‘I was the weird one down there’. The intersecting experiences of Norwegian international sport for development and peace volunteers

ABSTRACT For more than two decades, Norway has been one of the leading actors in engaging international volunteers to sport for development and peace (SDP) organisations in the Global South. SDP is a priority area of Norwegian sports politics, mainly projected through the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) where the international SDP volunteer (SDP-IV) scheme is central. Both local and international volunteers play a crucial role in SDP projects worldwide. To date, research on SDP-IVs has explored individual motivations, learning outcomes and experiences, and there is a body of critical literature examining SDP-IVs through the lenses of neo-liberalism, post-colonialism and critical race theory. Nevertheless, there is limited research addressing how SDP-IVs understand their roles as part of larger SDP policy structures. In response, and drawing on intersectional analysis, this paper explores how stories of gender, ethnicity and class intersect in Norwegian SDP-IV’s experiences of working in the Global South under the NIF’s SDP scheme. The study draws on empirical data from an online survey (N = 91) and two focus groups with former Norwegian SDP-IVs. The results suggest that SDP-IVs variously negotiate their roles and positions in local communities based on social categories. Stories of feeling different, finding comfort in other Norwegian SDP-IVs and negotiating power and privilege were recurrent in the data. It is also argued that by entering a system marked by ‘aid rhetoric’, the SDP-IVs may sustain uneven power relationships between the Global North and Global South. The paper draws attention to the need for critically informed SDP volunteer programme designs that better prepare SDP-IVs for work in Global South contexts.

Youth representatives as agents of institutional change: the circumscribing effects of role prescriptions in sport governance

ABSTRACT Conceptualising the youth representative as an institutional role, we explore the institutional shaping of youth representatives as change agents in the governance of sport organisations. Focusing on how these shaping conditions who the youth representative can be and what determines the scope of their role fulfilment, including the impact of their work on established institutional orders, allows us to examine the shaping of agency related to governance institutions. Data is drawn from a questionnaire centred on the experiences of young people in sport governance (n = 32) and semi-structured interviews with 10 representatives of organisations affiliated with the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederations of Sports. The role of the youth representatives is scripted in terms of who the representatives ought to be and what they ought to do. The scripting associated with the operationalisation of this ambition into role pre- and proscriptions stands in stark contrast to the ideal of youth representatives as agents of institutional change. Our study of the scripting of institutional roles has theoretical implications because it shows how normative typifications that link notions of actors with actorhood circumscribe institutional work pertaining to change.

Structural and Cultural Othering: An Organizational Culture Perspective on Young People’s Participation in Decision-making in Sport Organizations

The purpose of this article is to examine the role played by organizational culture in young people’s continuing underrepresentation in decision-making bodies, despite structural changes, in the context of Norwegian sport organizations. Data is based on a questionnaire centred on the experiences of young people in sport governance ( n = 32 youth representatives) and semi-structured interviews with young (under 26 years) and older representatives of organizations affiliated with the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederations of Sports ( n = 10). Findings show that Norwegian sport organizations foster a cultural understanding of young people which takes its structural expression in the separation of elements that are ‘othering’ the youth. Youth have also limited access to resources of power as a result of a lack of trust in older leaders. Prevailing culture mirrors an adult society in which young people need to upgrade their level of professionalism through education before they are invited to decision-making processes.

Institutional work as response to institutional complexities in hybrid elite sport and sport for all organizations

ABSTRACT Research question This study aimed to examine how actors across different organizational levels respond to institutional complexity when facilitating elite sport and sport for all. By applying institutional work to understand responses to institutional complexity better, we examined the individual actors’ organizational roles and why and how they transformed the complexity in performing day-to-day work. Research methods Data were collected in a bottom-up approach using qualitative focus groups and in-depth interviews. 149 representatives within Norwegian sport organizations contributed to the study, including coaches, club managers, directors, managers in national sport organizations, and the president of the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) Results and findings Institutional complexity is differently characterized at the different organizational levels. One common issue across levels is that the institutional complexity of sport for all and elite sport is seen as challenging, especially in the local sport clubs where institutional logics turn into day-to-day activity. The main source of the challenge is unifying the youth players and practitioners’ different skills and ambitions, which propagates upwards in the organization. How actors respond to complexity varies within the organizational levels and the different sports. Tensions stemming from complexity are often neglected by the political argument of ‘the trickle down and up effects’, which to a considerable extent lacks empirical evidence. Implications We recommend local sport managers prioritize expectation management to counteract a conflict of interests between institutional logics. It is necessary that national governing bodies better align their policies with the interest and organizational capacity of local clubs.

Injury and illness among Norwegian Olympic athletes during preparation for five consecutive Summer and Winter Games

ObjectiveTo describe the patterns of health problems among Norwegian Olympic candidates during their preparations for five consecutive Olympic Games (London 2012, Sochi 2014, Rio de Janeiro 2016, PyeongChang 2018 and...

Monitoring Changes in Lower-Limb Strength and Power in Elite Athletes With the Countermovement-Jump and Keiser Leg-Press Tests.

To determine the utility of countermovement-jump and Keiser leg-press tests for tracking changes in elite athletes of different sports. Elite athletes of the Norwegian Olympic Federation (126 individuals from 18 sports) performed countermovement-jump and Keiser tests on 2 to 11 occasions between 2014 and 2021. Separate analyses were performed for male and female alpine skiing, male and female handball, male ice hockey, and males and females of other sports. Means and standard deviations of consecutive change scores were combined with short-term error of measurement (3.7%-7.0%) and smallest important changes (2.0%-3.6%, defined by standardization) to determine the proportions of athletes who experienced decisive changes in 2 senses: first, the athlete did not get substantially worse or better (>90% chance of either), and second, the athlete did get substantially worse or better (>90% chance of either). Averaged over sports, Keiser peak power and relative peak power had the highest proportions of decisive changes in the first (60% and 55%) and second senses (25% and 28%). The velocity intercept of the force-velocity relationship had the lowest proportions in the first and second senses (29% and 11%), while jump height, Keiser mean power, relative mean power, the force intercept, and the slope of the force-velocity relationship had similar proportions (40%-53% and 15%-21%). With the possible exception of the Keiser test velocity intercept, the proportions of observed decisive changes in elite athletes using Keiser measures and countermovement-jump height between tests appear adequate for the measures to be useful for routine monitoring.

Countermovement Jump Height in National-Team Athletes of Various Sports: A Framework for Practitioners and Scientists.

To quantify possible differences in countermovement jump height across sport disciplines and sex in national-team athletes. In this cross-sectional study, 588 women (23 [5] y, 66 [8]kg) and 989 men (23 [5]y, 82 [12]kg) from 44 different sport disciplines (including 299 medalists from European Championships, World Championships, and/or Olympic Games) tested a countermovement jump on a force platform at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1995 and 2018. Athletic sprinting showed the highest values among the men (62.7 [4.8]cm) and women (48.4 [6.0]cm), clearly ahead of the long jump/triple jump (mean difference ± 90% CL: 6.5 ± 5.0 and 4.3 ± 4.1; very likely and likely; moderate) and speed skating sprint (11.4 ± 3.1 and 7.5 ± 5.5 cm; most likely and very likely; very large and moderate). These horizontally oriented sports displayed superior results compared with more vertically oriented and powerful sports such as beach volleyball, weightlifting, and ski jumping, both in men (from 2.9 ± 4.7 to 15.6 ± 2.9 cm; small to very large; possibly to most likely) and women (5.9 ± 4.8 to 13.4 ± 3.4 cm; large to very large; very likely to most likely), while endurance sports and precision sports were at the other end of the scale. Overall, the men jumped 33% higher than the women (10.3, ±0.6cm; most likely; large). This study provides practitioners and scientists with useful information regarding the variation in countermovement jump height among national-team athletes within and across sport disciplines.

“Girls Are Not Made of Glass!”: Barriers Experienced by Women in Norwegian Olympic Boxing

The marginalization and exclusion of women in boxing has emerged as a severe global problem, threatening women’s democratic right to equal participation in sport. The following article is based on ...

Norwegian Children’s Rights in Sport and Coaches’ Understanding of Talent

Little research has focused on and tried to understand the link between children’s participation in sports and their human rights. In Norway, children’s leisure athletics and sports participation are regulated through rules of sport (crs), voted in the Executive Board of the Norwegian Olympic and Paraolympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (“Idrettstinget”). The crs represent formal legislation rooted in the un Convention on the Rights of the Child, binding for all Norwegian sport coaches in their work with children until the age of 13. This qualitative study investigates coaches’ views of talent and talent development, and examines their views in the children’s rights perspective. The study is based on interviews with eight professional coaches in football (soccer), gymnastics, swimming and skiing. In important areas the coaches’ views are consistent with children’s rights; however, there are also coaches who speak out in violation of the rights.

The impact of gender quotas in leadership in Norwegian organised sport

ABSTRACTThe purpose of the article is to investigate the impact of gender quotas as a means to equalise the gender representation in the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sport (NIF), with particular attention to the composition of executive boards. According to NIF's here. Law Book, a certain number of both genders is required when electing boards and committees at all levels in the organisation. The law also states rules for exemption when not fulfilled. Based on qualitative interviews the study explores how the quota regulation is practised at various levels in the organisation. The results revealed that interviewees from the higher levels (sport federations and regional confederations) were well aware of the quota regulation, less so on the club level. To the question whether the quota regulation guided the composition of the boards, most of the federations and all the regional confederations followed the rule, at the club level about two-thirds of the boards were composed in accordance with the regulation. The results are discussed in relation to criteria for ‘strong’, ‘moderate’ and ‘weak’ regulation, which in terms of fulfilment appears ‘strong’ at the highest level in the organisation, and ‘moderate’ or ‘weak’ at the club level.

A neo-institutionalist analysis of sport event leveraging strategies and tactics

This study provides a conceptual framework for understanding how leveraging tactics are developed by implementing agents and organisations responsible for a certain outcome for sport events. The framework, built on neo-institutional theory and implementation literature, was applied by examining youth sport policy (YSP) implementation and outcomes by leveraging the 2016 Lillehammer Winter Youth Olympic Games with the formulated objective to increase the engagement of young people in Norwegian organised sport. Planning and perceptions of the leveraging process were explored through 33 semi-structured interviews with policy formulators, implementing agents, and the policy target group. Technical details of implementation proved to be more time-consuming and difficult than the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) and its partner organisations assumed. While the successful staging of the event itself was given priority, none of the stakeholder organisations involved in the YSP implementation prioritised its leverage. Opportunities for innovation on the street-level by the policy network were missed resulting in the reproduction of existing practices within the Norwegian sports structure.

Building sport policy’s legitimacy in Norway and New Zealand

Governing state-funded sport is tenuous because of the need to maintain legitimacy and support from political authorisers, stakeholders and network partners/members. The purpose of this paper is to compare/contrast how central sport agencies in Norway and New Zealand create, build or sustain legitimacy through their accountability regimes. More particularly, this comparison distinguishes between input and output sources of legitimacy, where the former is associated with democratic processes (e.g., electoral procedures and public consultation), and the latter is linked with results and demonstrable benefits. While the Norwegian Olympic and Paralympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) draws legitimacy from its representative membership structures and status as a social movement, Sport New Zealand claims legitimacy on the basis of achieving targets and outputs. In both cases there are emerging pressures to recast input–output legitimating narratives, suggesting their ‘depleteability’ over time. These shifts are discussed in relation to their influence on policy reforms within environments of accountability that are fluid and incomplete.

Defining a problem to fit the solution: A neo-institutional explanation for legitimising the bid for the 2016 Lillehammer winter Youth Olympic Games

ABSTRACTThis article discusses the successful bid for the 2016 Lillehammer winter Youth Olympic Games (YOG) and its incorporation within the broader youth sport strategy within organised sport in Norway. Although it is widely accepted that the argument that major sports events are a solution to problems of low levels of involvement in sport is not generally supported by evidence Norwegian sport organisations used this argument as a primary justification for hosting the YOG. The aim of the research is to investigate: a) why NIF used this argument even though there was so little evidence to support its validity; and b) how and why this seemingly contradictory argument was successfully ‘sold’ to the public. The research was guided by the methodological approach of discourse analysis and the theoretical framework of the neo-institutionalist concept of legitimacy. Based on this analysis I show how the institutionalised rhetoric of the Norwegian youth sport policy (YSP) adopted by the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports (NIF) became the main argument for the YOG bid. Further findings show that rather than responding to the youth sport participation problem, NIF used the development of youth sport as a convenient rationale to bid for the YOG in order to secure legitimacy from two of its main stakeholders – the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the Norwegian government. Rather than hosting the YOG as solution to a youth sport participation problem, NIF used the institutionalised rhetoric of the YSP, defining a problem to fit the solution.

Maximal aerobic capacity in the winter-Olympics endurance disciplines: Olympic-medal benchmarks for the time period 1990-2013.

To generate updated Olympic-medal benchmarks for VO2max in winter endurance disciplines, examine possible differences in VO2max between medalists and nonmedalists, and calculate gender difference in V˙ O2max based on a homogeneous subset of world-leading endurance athletes. The authors identified 111 athletes who participated in winter Olympic Games/World Championships in the period 1990 to 2013. All identified athletes tested VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center within ±1 y of their championship performance. Testing procedures were consistent throughout the entire period. For medal-winning athletes, the following relative VO2max values (mean:95% confidence intervals) for men/women were observed (mL · min-1 · kg-1): 84:87-81/72:77-68 for cross-country distance skiing, 78:81-75/68:73-64 for cross-country sprint skiing, 81:84-78/67:73-61 for biathlon, and 77:80-75 for Nordic combined (men only). Similar benchmarks for absolute VO2max (L/min) in male/female athletes are 6.4:6.1-6.7/4.3:4.1-4.5 for cross-country distance skiers, 6.3:5.8-6.8/4.0:3.7-4.3 for cross-country sprint skiers, 6.2:5.7-6.4/4.0:3.7-4.3 for biathletes, and 5.3:5.0-5.5 for Nordic combined (men only). The difference in relative VO2max between medalists and nonmedalists was large for Nordic combined, moderate for cross-country distance and biathlon, and small/trivial for the other disciplines. Corresponding differences in absolute VO2max were small/trivial for all disciplines. Male cross-country medalists achieve 15% higher relative VO2max than corresponding women. This study provides updated benchmark VO2max values for Olympic-medal-level performance in winter endurance disciplines and can serve as a guideline of the requirements for future elite athletes.

Interview With Halvor Lea, Head of Communications at the Norwegian Olympic Sports Center (Olympiatoppen)

Interview With Halvor Lea, Head of Communications at the Norwegian Olympic Sports Center (Olympiatoppen)

VO2max Characteristics of Elite Female Soccer Players, 1989–2007

To quantify VO2max among female competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the evolution of VO2max among world-class players over an 18-y period was quantified. Female players (N = 199, 22 ± 4 y, 63 ± 6 kg, height 169 ± 6 cm), including an Olympic winning squad, were tested for VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1989 and 2007. National-team players had 5% higher VO2max than 1st-division players (P = .042, d = 0.4), 13% higher than 2nd-division players (P < .001, d = 1.2), and 9% higher than junior players (P = .005, d = 1.0). Midfielders had 8% higher VO2max than goalkeepers (P = .048, d = 1.1). No significant differences were observed across outfield players or different age categories. There was a trend toward lower relative VO2max across time epochs. This study demonstrated that VO2max varies across playing-standard level in women's soccer. No significant differences in VO2max were observed across outfield positions and age categories. Over time, there has been a slight negative development in VO2max among elite Norwegian soccer players.

Competing for culture: Young Olympians' narratives from the first winter Youth Olympic Games

The purpose of this investigation was to study how the Norwegian Olympic Youth Team experienced the first winter Youth Olympic Games (YOG) by examining how they balanced the regular competitive programme, the Culture and Education Programme (CEP) in addition to several innovative events. Nine athletes were interviewed. Their experiences and perceptions of stressors differed according to the extent of their sports competitive programme during the 10 days of the Games. The results are presented in three narratives: the curler (with an extensive competitive programme), the biathlete (with a more balanced programme), and the luger (with one competition and sufficient time to take part in the CEP). As the curler took part both in a regular competitive event and an innovative one, YOG was all about competing and trying to get enough rest whenever possible. The biathlete with a balanced programme had time to experience all that YOG had to offer, while the luger would have benefitted from additional competition, regular or innovative. In order to cope, different types of social support from coaches, teammates and parents, together with cognitive strategies, were mentioned as important. The athletes' main goal for YOG is to take part in competition. However, if the International Olympic Committee wants all the athletes to embrace the cultural learning possibilities offered during the Games, future organizers should balance a cultural-competitive programme for all athletes.

Book Review

The ACL Solution: Prevention and Recovery for Sports' Most Devastating Knee Injury, written by Robert G. Marx, M.D., from the Hospital for Special Surgery, and Grethe Myklebust, P.T., Ph.D., from the Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, is a “must-read for all athletes, coaches, trainers, and physicians” according to Russell F. Warren, M.D.The book is divided into 4 major topics: how the knee works and what the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is, what to do if one's ACL tears, the ACL protection program, and when rehabilitation is not enough. Each topic is covered over several chapters. The chapters average 12 pages, making the book an easy read and the information easy to retain. In the introduction, Dr. Marx highlights that the reason for writing this book is “not just to present an approach to ACL injury prevention, but to consolidate in one place what the Internet offers only in fragmented form to those who have already injured themselves.”The prevention program presented in the book stems from a conglomerate of physicians from around the world and focuses on balance, strength, and position. The descriptions and images of each exercise are easy to understand, allowing for quick incorporation into the daily activities of the athlete. The exercises are also graded from Level 1 through Level 5 as the athlete develops the skill and strength to advance.Even though prevention is the main goal of the book, the authors do give insight into what is involved for the athlete recovering from ACL surgery and the dedication required to return to the preinjury level of competition. Whoever you are, athlete, parent, coach, trainer, or physician, if you care about preventing sports medicine's most common injury, this book is for you. The ACL Solution: Prevention and Recovery for Sports' Most Devastating Knee Injury, written by Robert G. Marx, M.D., from the Hospital for Special Surgery, and Grethe Myklebust, P.T., Ph.D., from the Norwegian Olympic Sports Centre, is a “must-read for all athletes, coaches, trainers, and physicians” according to Russell F. Warren, M.D. The book is divided into 4 major topics: how the knee works and what the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is, what to do if one's ACL tears, the ACL protection program, and when rehabilitation is not enough. Each topic is covered over several chapters. The chapters average 12 pages, making the book an easy read and the information easy to retain. In the introduction, Dr. Marx highlights that the reason for writing this book is “not just to present an approach to ACL injury prevention, but to consolidate in one place what the Internet offers only in fragmented form to those who have already injured themselves.” The prevention program presented in the book stems from a conglomerate of physicians from around the world and focuses on balance, strength, and position. The descriptions and images of each exercise are easy to understand, allowing for quick incorporation into the daily activities of the athlete. The exercises are also graded from Level 1 through Level 5 as the athlete develops the skill and strength to advance. Even though prevention is the main goal of the book, the authors do give insight into what is involved for the athlete recovering from ACL surgery and the dedication required to return to the preinjury level of competition. Whoever you are, athlete, parent, coach, trainer, or physician, if you care about preventing sports medicine's most common injury, this book is for you.

Maximal Aerobic Power Characteristics of Male Professional Soccer Players, 1989–2012

The purpose of this investigation was to quantify maximal aerobic power (VO2max) in soccer as a function of performance level, position, age, and time of season. In addition, the authors examined the evolution of VO2max among professional players over a 23-y period. 1545 male soccer players (22 ± 4 y, 76 ± 8 kg, 181 ± 6 cm) were tested for VO2max at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1989 and 2012. No differences in VO2max were observed among national-team players, 1st- and 2nd-division players, and juniors. Midfielders had higher VO2max than defenders, forwards, and goalkeepers (P < .05). Players <18 y of age had ~3% higher VO2max than 23- to 26-y-old players (P = .016). The players had 1.6% and 2.1% lower VO2max during off-season than preseason (P = .046) and in season (P = .021), respectively. Relative to body mass, VO2max among the professional players in this study has not improved over time. Professional players tested during 2006-2012 actually had 3.2% lower VO2max than those tested from 2000 to 2006 (P = .001). This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, player position, age, and season time on VO2max in men's elite soccer. The findings from a robust data set indicate that VO2max values ~62-64 mL · kg-1 · min-1 fulfill the demands for aerobic capacity in men's professional soccer and that VO2max is not a clearly distinguishing variable separating players of different standards.

Anaerobic Performance Testing of Professional Soccer Players 1995–2010

To compare sprint and countermovement-jump (CMJ) performance among competitive soccer players as a function of performance level, field position, and age. In addition, the authors wanted to quantify the evolution of these physical characteristics among professional players over a 15-y period. 939 athletes (22.1 ± 4.3 y), including national-team players, tested 40-m sprint with electronic timing and CMJ on a force platform at the Norwegian Olympic Training Center between 1995 and 2010. National-team and 1st-division players were faster (P < .05) than 2nd-division (1.0-1.4%), 3rd- to 5th-division (3.0-3.8%), junior national-team (1.7-2.2%), and junior players (2.8-3.7%). Forwards were faster than defenders (1.4%), midfielders (2.5%), and goalkeepers (3.2%) over 0-20 m (P < .001). Midfielders jumped ~2.0 cm lower than the other playing positions (P < .05). Sprinting velocity peaked in the age range 20-28 y and declined significantly thereafter (P < .05). Players from 2006-2010 had 1-2% faster 0-20 m and peak velocity than players from the 1995-1999 and 2000-2005 epochs, whereas no differences in CMJ performance were observed. This study provides effect-magnitude estimates for the influence of performance level, position, and age on sprint and CMJ performance in soccer. While CMJ performance has remained stable over the time, there has been a small but positive development in sprinting velocity among professional players.