Norwegian Grain Research Articles

Locationally Varying Production Technology and Productivity: The Case of Norwegian Farming

In this study, we leverage geographical coordinates and firm-level panel data to uncover variations in production across different locations. Our approach involves using a semiparametric proxy variable regression estimator, which allows us to define and estimate a customized production function for each firm and its corresponding location. By employing kernel methods, we estimate the nonparametric functions that determine the model’s parameters based on latitude and longitude. Furthermore, our model incorporates productivity components that consider various factors that influence production. Unlike spatially autoregressive-type production functions that assume a uniform technology across all locations, our approach estimates technology and productivity at both the firm and location levels, taking into account their specific characteristics. To handle endogenous regressors, we incorporate a proxy variable identification technique, distinguishing our method from geographically weighted semiparametric regressions. To investigate the heterogeneity in production technology and productivity among Norwegian grain farmers, we apply our model to a sample of farms using panel data spanning from 2001 to 2020. Through this analysis, we provide empirical evidence of regional variations in both technology and productivity among Norwegian grain farmers. Finally, we discuss the suitability of our approach for addressing the heterogeneity in this industry.

The airborne mycobiome and associations with mycotoxins and inflammatory markers in the Norwegian grain industry

Grain dust exposure is associated with respiratory symptoms among grain industry workers. However, the fungal assemblage that contribute to airborne grain dust has been poorly studied. We characterized the airborne fungal diversity at industrial grain- and animal feed mills, and identified differences in diversity, taxonomic compositions and community structural patterns between seasons and climatic zones. The fungal communities displayed strong variation between seasons and climatic zones, with 46% and 21% of OTUs shared between different seasons and climatic zones, respectively. The highest species richness was observed in the humid continental climate of the southeastern Norway, followed by the continental subarctic climate of the eastern inland with dryer, short summers and snowy winters, and the central coastal Norway with short growth season and lower temperature. The richness did not vary between seasons. The fungal diversity correlated with some specific mycotoxins in settled dust and with fibrinogen in the blood of exposed workers, but not with the personal exposure measurements of dust, glucans or spore counts. The study contributes to a better understanding of fungal exposures in the grain and animal feed industry. The differences in diversity suggest that the potential health effects of fungal inhalation may also be different.

A Metafrontier Analysis on the Performance of Grain-Producing Regions in Norway

Previous application of the stochastic frontier model and subsequent measurement of the performance of the crop sector can be criticized for the estimated production function relying on the assumption that the underlying technology is the same for different agricultural systems. This paper contributes to estimating regional efficiency and the technological gap in Norwegian grain farms using the stochastic metafrontier approach. For this study, we classified the country into regions with district level of development and, hence, production technologies. The dataset used is farm-level balanced panel data for 19 years (1996–2014) with 1463 observations from 196 family farms specialized in grain production. The study used the true random effect model and stochastic metafrontier analysis to estimate region level technical efficiency (TE) and technology gap ratio (TGR) in the two main grain-producing regions of Norway. The result of the analysis shows that farmers differ in performance and technology use. Consequently, the paper gives some regionally and farming system-based policy insights to increase grain production in the country to achieve self-sufficiency and small-scale farming in all regions.

Pesticide taxes or voluntary action? An analysis of responses among Norwegian grain farmers

This paper analyses two strategies to reduce the use of pesticides in grain production. We study Norwegian farmers’ willingness to voluntarily forego income by reducing pesticide use as well as their responses to a doubling of the pesticide price (through increased pesticide taxes). We use mixed methods including an experiment, a survey and focus group discussions. The experiment shows that most farmers are willing to sacrifice some income to reduce environmental risks by using less pesticide. According to the survey, they are, at the same time, relatively insensitive to a 100% price increase on herbicides and fungicides. While the response to the price increase probably would have been stronger if differentiated between chemicals, our research indicates potential benefits from supporting voluntary action. Value orientations and agronomic conditions influence the stated responses in both circumstances. Respondents emphasizing environmental values are more willing to voluntarily reduce pesticide use and show a greater response to the economic incentive than farmers emphasizing economic outcome and issues such as clean fields. A hypothesized willingness to reduce pesticide use voluntarily to strengthen the reputation of the sector was, however, rejected. Farmers appear to have few alternatives to pesticides, but increased knowledge about the alternatives that do exist, seems able to promote some change. Our findings suggest that the extension service should put greater emphasis on these options, even if they may have negative effects on income.

Integrated Pest Management adoption by grain farmers in Norway: A novel index method

Within the last decade, implementing eight key principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has become mandatory for all professional users of pesticides in the European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA). Meanwhile, evidence of the level of implementation is lacking. In this study, the adoption of IPM principles among Norwegian grain farmers was measured using a novel IPM index based on self-reported levels of performing IPM practices. Three IPM experts weighted the principles and practices included in the index. They found prevention and suppression to be the most important principle, followed by monitoring and decision-making, while pesticide selection and evaluation were deemed least important. A survey of 1250 farmers showed that the principles with the highest adoption rates were evaluation and anti-resistance strategies, while non-chemical methods and reduced pesticide use had the lowest adoption rates. The results support previous suggestions that more complex principles, requiring a larger set of practices, are less readily adopted than those that are less complex. Nevertheless, the index scores showed that most Norwegian grain farmers are extensively practicing IPM; 75% of the respondents obtained scores between 60 and 80 on a 100-point scale, with an average score of 68. In the Norwegian context, it is more relevant to discuss the varying use of IPM rather than how to increase adoption in general.

Glutathione-Conjugates of Deoxynivalenol in Naturally Contaminated Grain Are Primarily Linked via the Epoxide Group.

A glutathione (GSH) adduct of the mycotoxin 4-deoxynivalenol (DON), together with a range of related conjugates, has recently been tentatively identified by LC-MS of DON-treated wheat spikelets. In this study, we prepared samples of DON conjugated at the 10- and 13-positions with GSH, Cys, CysGly, γ-GluCys and N-acetylcysteine (NAC). The mixtures of conjugates were used as standards for LC-HRMS analysis of one of the DON-treated wheat spikelet samples, as well as 19 Norwegian grain samples of spring wheat and 16 grain samples of oats that were naturally-contaminated with DON at concentrations higher than 1 mg/kg. The artificially-contaminated wheat spikelets contained conjugates of GSH, CysGly and Cys coupled at the olefinic 10-position of DON, whereas the naturally-contaminated harvest-ripe grain samples contained GSH, CysGly, Cys, and NAC coupled mainly at the 13-position on the epoxy group. The identities of the conjugates were confirmed by LC-HRMS comparison with authentic standards, oxidation to the sulfoxides with hydrogen peroxide, and examination of product-ion spectra from LC-HRMS/MS analysis. No γ-GluCys adducts of DON were detected in any of the samples. The presence of 15-O-acetyl-DON was demonstrated for the first time in Norwegian grain. The results indicate that a small but significant proportion of DON is metabolized via the GSH-conjugation pathway in plants. To our knowledge, this is the first report of in vivo conjugation of trichothecenes via their epoxy group, which has generally been viewed as unreactive. Because conjugation at the 13-position of DON and other trichothecenes has been shown to be irreversible, this type of conjugate may prove useful as a biomarker of exposure to DON and other 12,13-epoxytrichothecenes.

Dendrochronological analysis of 19 Norwegian grain chests

Nineteen Norwegian grain chests made of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) were analyzed by measuring tree-ring widths on photographs and scanned pictures. Seventeen of the chests were successfully dated by dendrochronology. Two of the dates are corrections of an earlier dating; the ages of these two chests were verified by radiocarbon dating. The grain chests were expected to be medieval, but four, all without carvings, proved to be post-medieval. The mean curve constructed from the dated chests matches all regional Scots pine chronologies in central and southern Norway and several from southern Sweden. All the chests were probably constructed in central Norway. Originally only sixteen chests were known, but several new ones were discovered in the course of this project.

Work Tasks as Determinants of Grain Dust and Microbial Exposure in the Norwegian Grain and Compound Feed Industry.

The grain and compound feed industry entails inevitable risks of exposure to grain dust and its microbial content. The objective of this study was therefore to investigate task-dependent exposure differences in order to create knowledge basis for awareness and exposure reducing measures in the Norwegian grain and compound feed industry. A total of 166 samples of airborne dust were collected by full-shift personal sampling during work in 20 grain elevators and compound feed mills during one autumn season and two winter seasons. The personal exposure to grain dust, endotoxins, β-1→3-glucans, bacteria, and fungal spores was quantified and used as individual outcomes in mixed models with worker nested in company as random effect and different departments and tasks as fixed effects. The exposure levels were highest in grain elevator departments. Exposure to endotoxins was particularly high. Tasks that represented the highest and lowest exposures varied depending on the bioaerosol component. The most important determinants for elevated dust exposure were cleaning and process controlling. Cleaning increased the dust exposure level by a factor of 2.44 of the reference, from 0.65 to 1.58mg m(-3), whereas process controlling increased the dust exposure level by a factor of 2.97, from 0.65 to 1.93mg m(-3). Process controlling was associated with significantly less grain dust exposure in compound feed mills and the combined grain elevators and compound feed mills, than in grain elevators. The exposure was reduced by a factor of 0.18 and 0.22, from 1.93 to 0.34mg m(-3) and to 0.42mg m(-3), respectively, compared with the grain elevators. Inspection/maintenance, cleaning, and grain rotation and emptying were determinants of higher exposure to both endotoxin and β-1→3-glucans. Seed winnowing was in addition a strong determinant for endotoxin, whereas mixing of animal feed implied higher β-1→3-glucan exposure. Cleaning was the only task that contributed significantly to higher exposure to bacteria and fungal spores. Cleaning in all companies and process controlling in grain elevators were the strongest determinants for overall exposure, whereas seed winnowing was a particular strong determinant of endotoxin exposure. Exposure reduction by technical intervention or personal protective equipment should therefore be considered at work places with identified high exposure tasks.

Mycotoxins and other fungal metabolites in grain dust from Norwegian grain elevators and compound feed mills

Employees at grain elevators and compound feed mills are exposed to large amounts of grain dust during work, frequently leading to airway symptoms and asthma. Although the exposure to grain dust, microorganisms, β-1→3-glucans and endotoxins has been extensively studied, the focus on the mycotoxin content of grain dust has previously been limited to one or few mycotoxins. Our objective was therefore to screen settled grain dust from grain elevators and compound feed mills for fungal metabolites by LC/MS-MS and explore differences between work places, seasons and climatic zones. Seventy fungal metabolites and two bacterial metabolites were detected. Trichothecenes, depsipeptides, ergot alkaloids, and other metabolites fromFusarium, Claviceps,Alternaria, Penicillium, Aspergillus, and other fungi were represented. The prevalence of individual metabolites was highly variable, and the concentration of each metabolite varied considerably between samples. The prevalence and concentration of most metabolites were higher in grain elevators compared to compound feed mills. Differences between seasons and climatic zones were inconclusive. All samples contained multiple mycotoxins, indicating a highly complex pattern of possible inhalational exposure. A mean exposure of 20 ng/m3 of fungal metabolites was estimated, whereas a worst case scenario estimated as much as 10 ?g/m3. Although many of these compounds may be linked to toxicological and immunological effects through experimental or epidemiological studies, it still remains to be determined whether the detected concentrations implicate adverse health outcomes when inhaled.

Scaling of dust explosion violence from laboratory scale to full industrial scale – A challenging case history from the past

The standardized KSt parameter still seems to be widely used as a universal criterion for ranking explosion violence to be expected from various dusts in given industrial situations. However, this may not be a generally valid approach. In the case of dust explosion venting, the maximum pressure Pmax generated in a given vented industrial enclosure is not only influenced by inherent dust parameters (dust chemistry including moisture, and sizes and shapes of individual dust particles). Process-related parameters (degree of dust dispersion, cloud turbulence, and dust concentration) also play key roles. This view seems to be confirmed by some results from a series of large scale vented dust explosion experiments in a 500 m3 silo conducted in Norway by CMI, (now GexCon AS) during 1980–1982. Therefore, these results have been brought forward again in the present paper. The original purpose of the 500 m3 silo experiments was to obtain correlations between Pmax in the vented silo and the vent area in the silo top surface, for two different dusts, viz. a wheat grain dust collected in a Norwegian grain import silo facility, and a soya meal used for production of fish farming food. Both dusts were tested in the standard 20-L-sphere in two independent laboratories, and also in the Hartmann bomb in two independent laboratories. Pmax and (dP/dt)max were significantly lower for the soya meal than for the wheat grain dust in all laboratory tests. Because the available amount of wheat grain dust was much larger than the quite limited amount of available soya meal, a complete series of 16 vented silo experiments was first performed with the wheat grain dust, starting with the largest vent area and ending with the smallest one. Then, to avoid unnecessary laborious changes of vent areas, the first experiment with soya dust was performed with the smallest area. The dust cloud in the silo was produced in exactly the same way as with the wheat grain dust. However, contrary to expectations based on the laboratory-scale tests, the soya meal exploded more violently in the large silo than the wheat grain dust, and the silo was blown apart in the very first experiment with this material. The probable reason is that the two dusts responded differently to the dust cloud formation process in the silo on the one hand and in the laboratory-scale apparatuses on the other. This re-confirms that a differentiated philosophy for design of dust explosion vents is indeed needed. Appropriate attention must be paid to the influence of the actual dust cloud generation process on the required vent area. The location and type of the ignition source also play important roles. It may seem that tailored design has to become the future solution for tackling this complex reality, not least for large storage silos. It is the view of the present author that the ongoing development of CFD-based computer codes offers the most promising line of attack. This also applies to design of systems for dust explosion isolation and suppression.

Exposure to Grain Dust and Microbial Components in the Norwegian Grain and Compound Feed Industry

The aim of this study was to extensively characterize grain workers' personal exposure during work in Norwegian grain elevators and compound feed mills, to identify differences in exposures between the workplaces and seasons, and to study the correlations between different microbial components. Samples of airborne dust (n = 166) were collected by full-shift personal sampling during work in 20 grain elevators and compound feed mills during one autumn season and two winter seasons. The personal exposure to grain dust, endotoxins, β-1→3-glucans, bacteria, and fungal spores was quantified. Correlations between dust and microbial components and differences between workplaces and seasons were investigated. Determinants of endotoxin and β-1→3-glucan exposure were evaluated by linear mixed-effect regression modeling. The workers were exposed to an overall geometric mean of 1.0mg m(-3) inhalable grain dust [geometric standard deviation (GSD) = 3.7], 628 endotoxin units m(-3) (GSD = 5.9), 7.4 µg m(-3) of β-1→3-glucan (GSD = 5.6), 21 × 10(4) bacteria m(-3) (GSD = 7.9) and 3.6 × 10(4) fungal spores m(-3) (GSD = 3.4). The grain dust exposure levels were similar across workplaces and seasons, but the microbial content of the grain dust varied substantially between workplaces. Exposure levels of all microbial components were significantly higher in grain elevators compared with all other workplaces. The grain dust exposure was significantly correlated (Pearson's r) with endotoxin (rp = 0.65), β-1→3-glucan (rp = 0.72), bacteria (rp = 0.44) and fungal spore (rp = 0.48) exposure, whereas the explained variances were strongly dependent on the workplace. Bacteria, grain dust, and workplace were important determinants for endotoxin exposure, whereas fungal spores, grain dust, and workplace were important determinants for β-1→3-glucan exposure. Although the workers were exposed to a relatively low mean dust level, the microbial exposure was high. Furthermore, the exposure levels of microbial components varied between workplaces although the dust levels were similar. We therefore recommend that exposure levels at different workplaces should be assessed separately and a task-based assessment should be done for detailed evaluation of efficient dust-reducing measures. The microbial content and knowledge of health effects of the microbial components should be considered in health risk evaluations of these workplaces.

Technical efficiency in competing panel data models: a study of Norwegian grain farming

Estimation of technical efficiency is widely used in empirical research using both cross-sectional and panel data. Although several stochastic frontier models for panel data are available, only a few of them are normally applied in empirical research. In this article we chose a broad selection of such models based on different assumptions and specifications of heterogeneity, heteroskedasticity and technical inefficiency. We applied these models to a single dataset from Norwegian grain farmers for the period 2004–2008. We also introduced a new model that disentangles firm effects from persistent (time-invariant) and residual (time-varying) technical inefficiency. We found that efficiency results are quite sensitive to how inefficiency is modeled and interpreted. Consequently, we recommend that future empirical research should pay more attention to modeling and interpreting inefficiency as well as to the assumptions underlying each model when using panel data.

Determinants of off‐farm work and its effects on farm performance: the case of Norwegian grain farmers

AbstractLimited attention has been given in the literature to the impact of off‐farm work on farm performance. More knowledge about the determinants of part‐time farming and its effects on farm performance could help policymakers to introduce better targeted rural development policies. The aim in this article is to fill part of the above‐mentioned gaps by analyzing factors that influence the choices of off‐farm work by either the farmer alone or jointly by both the farmer and partner; and simultaneously examining how off‐farm work influences farm performance. These analyses were based on an unbalanced panel data set from Norwegian grain farms during 1991 to 2005. Among the determinants of off‐farm work hours, we found that, in addition to demographic, time trend, and some regional effects, there was a significant negative effect of farm output on farmers' off‐farm work hours. The production function results revealed that off‐farm work had a positive effect on farm output, at first increasing but then decreasing with increase in hours spent in off‐farm work. Furthermore, our analysis revealed no systematic effect of off‐farm work on farm technical efficiency.

Statistical precision of DEA and Malmquist indices: A bootstrap application to Norwegian grain producers

Previous applications of data envelopment analysis (DEA) and its subsequent Malmquist indices to efficiency and productivity measurements have been criticised for not providing statistical inferences regarding the significance of observed results. In this paper, DEA and a Malmquist index are combined with a bootstrap method in order to provide succinct statistical inferences that determine the performance of grain producers in Eastern Norway. The data cover the period between 1987 and 1997. Results reveal: (i) a significant degree of inefficiency (approximately 11%) and an average productivity progress of 38% over the period considered; (ii) the formidable productivity progress observed is primarily explained by technical efficiency changes that enabled producers to catch up with front runners; and (iii) environmental factors, such as weather conditions, impact both efficiency and productivity. Finally, the analysis reveals that using bootstrapping to make statistical inferences suggests that researchers should be careful in making performance comparisons based on conventional DEA methods, as any discovered differences may not be significant.

Measuring technical efficiency and productivity growth: a comparison of SFA and DEA on Norwegian grain production data

This article compares data envelopment analysis and stochastic frontier analysis to assess efficiency and productivity growth of Norwegian grain producers. Previous studies have dealt with either one of them and less of both. For the assessment of productivity growth or regress, Malmquist productivity indices are derived from both approaches. The data cover a 10-year period. We find consistency between the approaches to the extent that: (1) there are potentials for efficiency improvements, but the magnitudes depends on the model applied and by segmentation of the data set, (2) there has been a productivity improvement in the sector, on average in the interval 30–38% in the period studied and (3) technical change has had the greatest impact on productivity, indicating that producers have a tendency to catch-up with the front runners. In general, policy-makers are warned not to be indifferent with respect to the approach used for efficiency and productivity measurement as these may give different results.

2-Amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol, a new sphingosine analogue toxin in the fungal genus Fusarium

2-Amino-14,16-dimethyloctadecan-3-ol (2-AOD-3-ol) was isolated from the cytotoxic rice culture extract of a strain of Fusarium avenaceum, which had previously been isolated from Norwegian grain. The structural information was obtained from LC–MS/MS, GC–MS, NMR spectroscopy and high-resolution MS data. The metabolite has a striking similarity to sphinganine, an intermediate in the biosynthesis of the sphingolipids. This similarity is a major feature of the so-called sphingosine analogue toxins; the most studied being the AAL toxins and the fumonisins. 2-AOD-3-ol was found to be cytotoxic to the rat hepatoma cell line H4IIE-W and to the porcine epithelial kidney cell line PK(15) at concentrations (EC 50) of 16 and 24 μM, respectively. The metabolite has been found in F. avenaceum inoculated wheat that was treated to support ideal conditions for Fusarium growth, demonstrating that the fungus has the potential to produce the metabolite under field conditions, which may occur in Northern Europe.

Beauvericin and enniatins A, A1, B and B1 in Norwegian grain: a survey

Norwegian grain samples (73 oats, 75 barley, 80 wheat) from the 2000 to 2002 growing seasons were examined for contamination with five different enniatins and the association between the found concentrations and the prevalence or infection level with several common Fusarium species investigated. Enniatin B was the fungal metabolite with the highest prevalence (100%) and the highest maximum concentration (5800 μg/kg, wheat). The maximum concentration of all five enniatins together in a single sample was 7400 μg/kg (wheat). Enniatin concentrations were correlated with several independent variables, among them grain species. Beauvericin was only sporadically detected in barley and wheat and at concentrations just above the limit of detection of 3 μg/kg, while amounts up to 120 μg/kg were found in oats. The likelihood of detecting enniatin A1 as well as the concentrations of enniatins B and B1 could be mainly related to infection with Fusarium avenaceum/arthrosporioides, and the likelihood of detecting beauvericin could be related to infection with Fusarium poae. This survey indicates that the prevalence of enniatins A1, B and B1 in Norwegian grain is high, and that enniatin B concentrations of above 1000 μg/kg are common in barley and wheat.

Moniliformin in Norwegian grain

Norwegian grain samples (73 oats, 75 barley, 83 wheat) from the 2000–02 growing seasons were examined for contamination with moniliformin, and the association between the fungal metabolite and the number of kernels infected with common Fusaria was investigated. Before quantification of moniliformin using ion pairing reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array ultraviolet light detection, all samples were extracted using acetonitrile/water (84/16) and disposable strong anion exchange columns used for clean up. The limit of detection was 40 μg kg−1. Moniliformin was found in 25, 32 and 76% of the barley, oats and wheat samples, respectively. The maximum concentrations of moniliformin in barley, oats and wheat were 380, 210 and 950 μg kg−1, respectively. At the same time, the prevalence and infection level of the moniliformin-producing F. avenaceum/arthrosporioides was as high as 100 and >53% on average, respectively. Moniliformin concentrations were significantly correlated to the variables grain species, growing season and infection with F. avenaceum/arthrosporioides and F. culmorum. The survey indicates that the prevalence of moniliformin in Norwegian grain is high, especially in wheat. On the other hand, field conditions in Norway do not seem to favour contamination of grain with high levels of moniliformin.

Mycotoxin production by Fusarium avenaceum strains isolated from Norwegian grain and the cytotoxicity of rice culture extracts to porcine kidney epithelial cells.

The secondary metabolites of 24 isolates of Fusarium avenaceum from Norwegian cereals and grown on rice have been characterized. Moniliformin (MON), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvericin (BEA) were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. Porcine kidney epithelial cells (PK15, American Type Culture Collection) were used to study the cytotoxicity of MON in the extracts. The following metabolites were produced by all isolates, ranked by concentration in rice cultures: ENN-B, MON, ENN-B1, and ENN-A. BEA was produced by eight isolates. The productions of BEA and ENN-A were significantly correlated, as was the case with ENN-B and ENN-B1. MON production was correlated neither to any of the other toxins nor to toxicity.

The Occurrence of Fusarium SPP. In Norwegian Grain — A Survey

The Occurrence of Fusarium SPP. In Norwegian Grain — A Survey