Norwegian Employees Research Articles

Can observations of workplace bullying really make you depressed? A response to Emdad et al.

A recent study by Emdad and colleagues published in International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health concluded that being a bystander to workplace bullying is related to future symptoms of depression. In this response to the authors, we argue, through the use of empirical evidence, that this relationship can be explained by the observers own exposure to bullying. Furthermore, by also investigating the reversed association between the variables, we show that observations of workplace bullying can be influenced by symptoms of psychological distress. A reanalysis of prospective questionnaire survey data with a two-year time lag based on a representative sample of Norwegian employees was used to determine long-term relationships between observed bullying, self-reported exposure to bullying, and psychological distress. Bivariate, baseline observations of others being bullied were significantly associated with subsequent symptoms of psychological distress. Yet, this association disappeared when controlling for the observers own exposure to bullying. Analyzing reversed relationship between the variables, baseline symptoms of distress predicted being a bystander at follow-up. By showing that the relationship between being a bystander to bullying and distress can be fully explained by the observers own exposure to bullying, our results question the conclusion by Emdad et al. (Int Arch Occup Environ Health. doi: 10.1007/s00420-012-0813-1 , 2012) that observed bullying in itself is related to subsequent distress. Together with the finding that psychological distress predicts subsequent observations of bullying, it is concluded that future research on observers should always take the observers' own exposure to bullying, as well as negative perceptions biases, into account.

Workaholism and work–family spillover in a cross-occupational sample

This study examined the relationship between three components of workaholism (work involvement, drive, enjoyment of work) and work–family spillover. A cross-occupational sample consisting of 661 Norwegian employees from six different organizations responded to a Web-based questionnaire measuring workaholism and work–family spillover. A short and revised version of the WorkBAT showed that work involvement was positively related to both positive family-to-work spillover and to negative work-to-family spillover. Drive was positively related to both negative work-to-family and negative family-to-work spillover, and negatively related to positive work-to-family spillover. Enjoyment of work was positively associated with positive work-to-family and positive family-to-work spillover. Workaholism is clearly related to spillover. The findings imply that interventions for workers scoring high on work involvement and drive should be emphasized as these dimensions were associated with negative spillover. More research on this area is warranted.

Happy together, or not? Balanced perceived investment in standard and nonstandard employees

This study investigated whether the relationship between temporary employees' perceived investment in employee development and work outcomes was moderated by temporary employees' perceived investment in standard employee development (PISED). A study among 2022 Norwegian temporary employees showed that the relationship between perceived investment in temporary employee development and in-role and contextual performance was moderated by the temporary employees' PISED. These results suggest that client organizations that invest more in standard employee development will get the most of their investments in temporary employee development. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

The Relationship of Narcissism with Workaholism, Work Engagement, and Professional Position

We examined scores on the Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI; Raskin & Terry, 1988) in relation to drive to work, enjoyment of and engagement in work, and professional position. A sample of 235 Norwegian bank employees completed a cross-sectional survey. We found that managers scored higher than subordinates on all measures. NPI scores correlated significantly and positively with drive, enjoyment of and engagement in work. Multiple regression analyses controlling for demographic and work variables showed that narcissism was significantly related to enjoyment of work and work engagement but unrelated to drive. Although the associations were rather weak, our findings support previous clinical observations of narcissistic traits in workaholics as well as findings in empirical research on narcissistic traits in managers.

The Relationship Between Norwegian and Swedish Employees’ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility and Affective Commitment

Corporations are spending a substantial and increasing amount of money on corporate social responsibility (CSR). However, little is known about the effects on key stakeholders of these activities. This study investigates if CSR activities have an effect on employees’ affective commitment (AC). Two models test to what extent employees’ CSR perception, involvement in decision processes, and demographic variables are related to their AC relative to their perception of positive organizational support (POS). The analysis is based on a sample of 512 employees from 4 Scandinavian companies; 3 Norwegian and 1 Swedish, randomly selected from a population of 6,710 mostly Norwegian and Swedish employees in those 2 countries. The results indicate that CSR perception is a significant predictor of AC, although how employees feel that the company cares about them (POS) has stronger explanatory power on AC. Contrary to the few other studies addressing AC and CSR, gender was not found to be a significant variable in the model.

Prospective relationships between workplace sexual harassment and psychological distress

Exposure to workplace sexual harassment (SH) has been associated with impaired mental health, but longitudinal studies confirming the relationship are lacking. To examine gender differences in prospective associations between SH and psychological distress. Baseline questionnaire survey data were collected in 2005 in a representative sample of Norwegian employees. Follow-up data were collected in 2007. SH was measured with the Bergen Sexual Harassment Scale. Psychological distress was measured with the 25 item Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-25) with cases of psychological distress defined as having a mean score of <1.75. Variables were measured at both baseline and follow-up. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyse data. Response rates were 57% in 2005 and 75% in 2007 when the final cohort comprised 1775 respondents. After adjusting for baseline distress and age, exposure to SH at baseline was associated with psychological distress at follow-up among women [odds ratio (OR): 2.03; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.2-3.39] but not men (OR: 1.32; 95% CI: 0.72-2.43). Baseline distress was significantly related to SH at follow-up among men (OR: 3.03; 95% CI: 1.74-5.26) but not women (OR: 1.15; 95% CI: 0.69-1.92). The study found that SH contributed to subsequent psychological distress among women. Workplace measures against SH would be expected to lead to a reduction in mental disorders. The finding that psychological distress predicts SH among men may indicate either a vulnerability factor or a negative perception mechanism.

The rise in absenteeism: disentangling the impacts of cohort, age and time

In recent years, a number of welfare state economies, including Norway, have experienced substantial increases in sickness absence. Using longitudinal individual register data for virtually all Norwegian employees, we examine the remarkable rise since the early 1990s, with emphasis on disentangling the roles of cohort, age, and time. We show that individual age-adjusted absence propensities have risen even more than aggregate absence rates from 1993 to 2005, which casts doubt on the popular hypotheses that the rise was due to the inclusion into the workforce of young or marginal workers with weaker work-norms or poorer health.

Impact of aerobic fitness on musculoskeletal sickness absence 5–15 years later: a cohort study of 227 201 male Norwegian employees

ObjectivesThe aim of the study was to estimate associations between aerobic fitness among men at age 18–19 years and work absence due to musculoskeletal sickness 5–15 years later.MethodsAll 321 975...

Longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying and psychological distress

The aims of this study were to examine reciprocal longitudinal associations between exposure to workplace bullying and symptoms of psychological distress and to investigate how self-labeled victimization from bullying explains the effects of bullying on health. Logistic regression analysis was employed to examine the longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying and psychological distress in a representative cohort sample of 1775 Norwegian employees. The time-lag between baseline and follow-up was two years. Exposure to bullying behavior was measured with the revised version of the Negative Acts Questionnaire. Perceived victimization from bullying was measured by a single self-labeling question. Psychological distress was measured with the 25-item Hopkins Symptom Checklist. All variables were measured at both baseline and follow-up. After adjustment for psychological distress at baseline, exposure to bullying behavior [odds ratio (OR) 1.68, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 1.07-2.62) was found to predict subsequent psychological distress. This effect of bullying behaviors disappeared when victimization from bullying (OR 2.47, 95% CI 1.17-5.22) was entered into the regression. Both psychological distress (OR 2.49, 95% CI 1.64-3.80) and victimization (OR 2.61, 95% CI 1.42-4.81) at baseline were associated with increased risks of being a target of bullying behaviors at follow-up. Psychological distress (OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.39-4.52) and bullying behaviors (OR 2.95, 95% CI 1.39-4.52) at follow-up were associated with victimization. The mutual relationship between bullying and psychological distress indicates a vicious circle where bullying and distress reinforce their own negative effects. This highlights the importance of early interventions to stop workplace bullying and provide treatment options to employees with psychological distress.

Readjusting one’s life in the tension inherent in work and motherhood

This paper is a report on a study undertaken to interpret employed first-time mothers' experiences of returning to work after maternity leave, in a Norwegian context. Despite the increasing rate of employed fertile women and increasing welfare benefits to support the work-life balance, the first years after giving birth are described as being the most demanding on mothers' health. However, little is known about mothers' experiences of returning to work after maternity leave. The study included nine Norwegian employees who were individually interviewed during the first months after their return to work following maternity leave. The interviews were conducted during 2009 and interpreted using a method grounded in hermeneutics. Overall, the meaning of returning to work was interpreted as 'Readjusting one's life in the tension inherent in work and motherhood'. This comprehensive theme was based on three sub-themes: (a) Striving to manage the workload and taking responsibility for the best interests of the child, (b) Struggling with feelings of not being a good enough mother, and (c) Maintaining a balance between sensitivity and self-confidence. Returning to work after maternity leave appears to be a transitional phase that can be critical to the well-being of first-time mothers. To support women during this phase, employers and public health nurses should monitor the work in relation to the women's capacity and value their competence both as employees and mothers.

Silence is golden? Characteristics and experiences of self-reported whistleblowers

This study investigates the characteristics of whistleblowers, the prevalence and nature of whistleblowing, and the occurrence of retaliation after whistleblowing using a randomly selected and representative sample of Norwegian employees. The results showed that 12 per cent self-reported as whistleblowers according to an operational definition. Being a leader, or a union or personnel safety representative was significantly related to whistleblowing. The most frequently reported wrongdoing was harassment conducted by a single colleague. Wrongdoer(s) received mixed responses, from no reaction to reprimand. Even though most whistleblowers were not sanctioned, they reported less job satisfaction and more workplace bullying than did nonwhistleblowers. Only a few were rewarded. For the most part, wrongdoing was stopped or reduced. However, whistleblowing was only partially effective, because whistleblowers reported lack of feedback about the result of their report. Results also showed that the status of the wrongdoer was related to the reaction he or she received afterwards, as were the type of wrongdoing and the effect on the wrongdoing, and the type of wrongdoing and the effect on the wrongdoer(s). Potential explanations for the results, such as the type of sample and power distance, are discussed. Practical implications of the study are also addressed, such as the importance of providing feedback to whistleblowers.

Workplace bullying and mental distress – a prospective study of Norwegian employees

Using a prospective design, the objective of this study was to determine the relationship between workplace bullying and mental distress. Altogether, 1971 Norwegian employees, recruited from 20 organizations, answered questions regarding workplace bullying and mental distress at both baseline and follow-up. Baseline data were gathered between 2004-2006, and follow-up data were gathered between 2006-2009. The time-lag between baseline and follow-up was approximately two years for all the respondents in all the organizations. The factors measured in the study were individual characteristics, mental distress measured with the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL-10), self-reported workplace bullying measured with a single item from the General Nordic Questionnaire for Psychological and Social Factors at Work (QPSNordic) and job demands and job control assessed by QPSNordic. A multiple linear regression analysis adjusted for mental distress, sex, age, job demands and job control at baseline [β=0.05, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.03-0.17] and a repeated measures ANOVA adjusted for sex and age [F(3,1965)=38.37; partial η (2)=0.06] showed that workplace bullying predicted mental distress. Furthermore, a multiple binary logistic regression analysis adjusted for bullying, sex, age, job demands and job control at baseline [odds ratio (OR) 2.30, 95% CI 1.43-3.69] showed that mental distress was a predictor of bullying. We found support for the notion that self-reported workplace bullying is a predictor of mental distress two years later. Bullying had an independent effect on mental distress after adjusting for job demands and job control. Mental distress was also found to be a predictor of bullying, indicating that the reverse relationship is also important.

Work and neck pain: A prospective study of psychological, social, and mechanical risk factors

To determine the impact of occupational psychological/social and mechanical factors on neck pain, a prospective cohort study with a follow-up period of 2 years was conducted with a sample of Norwegian employees. The following designs were tested: (i) cross-sectional analyses at baseline ( n = 4569) and follow-up ( n = 4122), (ii) prospective analyses with baseline predictors, (iii) prospective analyses with average exposure over time [( T1 + T2)/2] as predictor, and (iv) prospective analyses with measures of change in exposure from T1 to T2 as predictors. A total of 2419 employees responded to both the baseline and follow-up questionnaire. Data were analyzed using ordinal logistic regression. After adjustment for age, sex, neck pain at T1, and other exposure factors that had been estimated to be confounders, the most consistent risk factors were role conflict (highest OR 2.97, 99% CI: 1.29–6.74) and working with arms raised to or above shoulder level (highest OR 1.37, 99% CI: 1.05–1.78). The most consistent protective factors were empowering leadership (lowest OR 0.53, 99% CI: 0.35–0.81) and decision control (lowest OR 0.60, 99% CI: 0.36–1.00). Hence, psychological and social factors are important precursors of neck pain, along with mechanical factors. Although traditional factors such as quantitative demands and decision control play a part in the etiology of neck pain at work, in this study several new factors emerged as more important.

Sexual Harassment: Prevalence, Outcomes, and Gender Differences Assessed by Three Different Estimation Methods

This study investigates gender differences in prevalence and effects of sexual harassment using three different estimation methods. In a representative sample of 2,349 Norwegian employees, 1.1% self-labeled as targets of sexual harassment, whereas 18.4% reported exposure to sexually harassing behaviors during the last six months. When employing latent class cluster analysis as a method for estimating prevalence of sexual harassment, 2.2% could be classified as targets of frequent harassment and 19.1% could be classified as targets of unwanted sexual attention. Although more women than men self-labeled as targets of sexual harassment, men reported the same number of sexually harassing behaviors as women. Sexual harassment was found to be significantly related to mental health problems and low job satisfaction among men and women.

Implementation of a method for glucose measurements in community pharmacies

We aimed to implement a method for glucose measurements that could be used as a comparison method for asessing patients' self-monitoring of blood glucose. Further, we investigated whether pharmacies could achieve an analytical quality comparable to glucose measurements performed in general practice. Sixteen Norwegian pharmacy employees were trained in glucose measurement, quality control and blood sampling. The comparison method, HemoCue Glucose 201+, was validated in four steps: (1) estimation of the variation between the HemoCue instruments to be used at the 16 pharmacies, (2) comparison between HemoCue results and a laboratory glucose method, (3) monitoring quality by internal quality controls and (4) an external quality-assessment scheme. The pharmacies' results of the external quality assessment were compared to those of 359 general practices. The coefficient of variation for HemoCue instruments was 6.1% at the low level and 1.7% at the normal and high levels. Bias was negligible at the normal level. The coefficients of variation for internal quality controls were 4.5, 1.5 and 1.2% for the low, normal and high levels, respectively. All pharmacies achieved good precision and acceptable or good trueness in the external quality assessment. The pharmacies exhibited significantly lower variation between sites (2.2 and 1.2%) than general practices (3.8 and 2.9%) on both external quality-assessment samples. Given correct training and the establishment of a system of quality assurance, pharmacies are capable of obtaining glucose measurements that can be used as comparison measurements for controlling patients' meters. The pharmacies had external quality-assessment results comparable to general practice.

The relationship between ‘workaholism’, basic needs satisfaction at work and personality

The aim of this study was to examine correlates of ‘workaholism’ components (Work Involvement, Drive, Enjoyment of Work). A cross‐occupational sample of 661 Norwegian employees in six different organizations completed a web‐based survey measuring ‘workaholism’, basic needs satisfaction at work and personality. Needs satisfaction at work was positively related to Enjoyment of Work, and negatively to Drive. Conscientiousness was positively related to all ‘workaholism’ components; Extraversion and Openness to Work Involvement and Enjoyment of Work; and Neuroticism to Drive. Negative relations were found between Neuroticism and Enjoyment of Work, and Agreeableness and Drive. Although the associations were rather weak, the findings give reason to differentiate between enthusiastic and non‐enthusiastic ‘workaholic’ characteristics, which were consistent with predictions taken from central theories on ‘workaholism’. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

Use of alcohol and drugs by Norwegian employees: a pilot study using questionnaires and analysis of oral fluid

BackgroundThe use of alcohol and drugs may affect workplace safety and productivity. Little is known about the magnitude of this problem in Norway.MethodsEmployee recruitment methods with or without individual follow-up were compared. The employees filled in a questionnaire and provided a sample of oral fluid. Samples were analysed for alcohol, ethyl glucuronide (EtG; a biological marker of recent large alcohol intake), psychoactive medicinal drugs and illegal drugs.ResultsParticipation rates with and without individual follow-up were 96% and 68%, respectively. Alcohol was negative (≤0.1 mg/ml) in all samples, but 21.0% reported the intake of alcohol during the last 24 h. EtG was positive (>2.2 ng/ml) in 2.1% of the samples. In-efficiency or hangover at work during the past year was reported by 24.3%, while 6.2% had been absent from work due to the use of alcohol. The combination of self-report and analytical testing indicated that medicinal or illegal drugs had been used during the last 48 h by 5.1% and 1.7% of the participants, respectively; while only 4.2% and 0.4% admitted the use in the questionnaire.ConclusionsSelf-reported data suggest that hangover after drinking alcohol appears to be the largest substance abuse problem at Norwegian workplaces, resulting in absence and inefficiency at work. Analysis of oral fluid revealed that the use of illegal drugs was more common than drinking alcohol before working or at the workplace. The analysis of oral fluid may be a valuable tool in obtaining additional information on alcohol and drug use compared to using questionnaires alone.

The Rise in Absenteeism: Disentangling the Impacts of Cohort, Age and Time

We examine the remarkable rise in absenteeism among Norwegian employees since the early 1990's, with particular emphasis on disentangling the roles of cohort, age, and time. Based on a fixed effects model, we show that individual age-adjusted absence propensities have risen even more than aggregate absence rates from 1993 to 2005, debunking the popular hypothesis that the rise in absenteeism resulted from the inclusion of new cohorts ﾖ with weaker work-norms ﾖ into the workforce. We also reject the idea that the rise in absenteeism resulted from more successful integration of workers with poor health; on the contrary, a massive rise in disability rolls during the 1990ﾒs suggest that poor-health workers have left the labor market in unprecedented numbers.

Job demands, job control, and mental health in an 11-year follow-up study: Normal and reversed relationships

Despite numerous studies of the demand-control model, there is a need for more longitudinal studies to test not only the normal, but also the reversed and reciprocal relationships between work characteristics and mental health. There is also a need for more studies of the multiplicative interaction between demands and control with respect to mental health, which is different from the simple additive effect of the two variables. This is a longitudinal study with an exceptionally long period of follow-up (11 years), with the focus on normal as well as reciprocal and reversed causality between work characteristics and mental health, as measured by reliable instruments close to the original definitions of Karasek. The study was based on a sample of 439 Norwegian employees of different occupations who had stayed in the same profession during the follow-up period. The results were in agreement with the hypothesis that low job control, and in particular low control in combination with high demands (“high strain jobs”), has a negative effect on mental health. There was a significant multiplicative interaction between demands and control, indicating a “buffering” effect of job control. Job demands alone were not significantly associated with mental health. The reversed relationship hypothesis was supported for job demands, but not for job control.

Interpersonal Problems Among Perpetrators and Targets of Workplace Bullying

This representative study among 2,539 Norwegian employees examines interpersonal problems among targets and perpetrators of workplace bullying. Both targets and perpetrators portrayed elevated levels of interpersonal problems. Yet, the results question the role of a general target personality in explaining exposure to workplace bullying. Although interpersonal problems were reported among 50% of the targets, interpersonal problems were also prevalent in a large proportion of the non‐exposed employees. Accordingly, level of interpersonal problems does not easily differentiate targets from non‐targets and calls for a broader frame of reference in order to understand the bullying process.