Norwegian Coastal Zone Research Articles

When all you have is a hammer - integration challenges in coastal zone planning

This paper critically examines the evolution of integration as a concept in coastal zone planning through an analysis of Norwegian municipal coastal zone plans spanning a 35-year period. By drawing on the framework of governmentality, we show how the coastal zone and the activities taking place there are being subject to problematizations, rationalizations and technologies for promoting integration. This illustrates how previous spatial dispositions themselves become problematized at later points, giving rise to new rationalizations and new technologies of governing, revealing a dynamic redefinition of integration in response to complex coastal governance challenges. What integration entails is not a given. Instead, it’s a fluid concept, evolving over time in meaning and intent. The paper also shows how ambitions for integrated or comprehensive planning can obscure the purpose of planning and increase complexity. With integration being framed as an undisputed answer to conflicts in the coastal zone, the difficulty of managing the multitude of coastal activities does not lead to a critical discussion on whether ‘integration’ is a fruitful ambition. Instead, it becomes an argument for yet more integrative efforts.

Stakeholders' perception and willingness-to-pay for an aquaculture-based fisheries enhancement program for coastal cod in Southern Norway

The coastal cod fishery in Southern Norway has experienced a significant decline over the last decades. Recreational fishing for cod in the eastern part of the country is currently banned. Fisheries managers have adopted a variety of strategies to sustain the populations for resource users. Aquaculture-based fisheries enhancement has been considered as an alternative intervention to rebuild overexploited cod stock or to improve the opportunity for marine fishing. However, there has been a debate regarding its ecological and social effectiveness among stakeholders. In this paper, we conducted an online contingent valuation survey aiming to understand stakeholders' perceptions and attitude towards restocking of hatchery-produced juveniles as a potential restoration approach to rebuild depleted coastal cod populations and their willingness to pay for the implementation of such an enhancement program in southern Norway. Results indicate that the public has a positive perception to the potential restocking program. The average Willingness-To-Pay (WTP), e.g. fishing license fee, is approximately 175 NOK and 693 NOK if all of the respondents, and only counting those who are willing to, contribute. The introduction of a minimum fishing license fee of 175 NOK (approximately 17€) would cover the cost of production of over 20 million juvenile cod of appropriate size for release. Age of the respondents, the frequency of their fishing trips, and their perception of the decline of coastal cod were the main drivers for the WTP contribution while the amount of the WTP was strongly correlated to targeting particular species, educational level, and place of residence. Considering the critical situation of the coastal cod populations in southern Norway, together with the significant advances in cod rearing techniques, in fish tagging technology and the maturation of fisheries enhancement as science, and the positive stakeholders' perceptions and attitudes towards such an aquaculture-based enhancement program revealed from this study, it may be the time to re-evaluate the potential integration of a holistic cod restocking program within Norwegian coastal zone management.

ICESat-2 for Coastal MSS Determination—Evaluation in the Norwegian Coastal Zone

Radar satellite altimeters enable the determination of the mean sea surface to centimeter accuracy, which can be degraded in coastal areas because of the lack of valid altimetry observations due to land contamination and the altimeter footprint size. In 2018, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration launched ICESat-2, a laser altimetry mission equipped with the Advanced Topographic Laser Altimeter System, providing measurements every 0.7 m in the along-track direction. Taking into account the complexity of the Norwegian coastline, this study aims to evaluate coastal observations from ICESat-2 in order to use it to update the existing mean sea surface for Norway, NMBU18. We, therefore, determined the mean sea surface using only ICESat-2 observations and compared it with mean sea level observations from 23 permanent tide gauges along the entire coast and 21 temporary tide gauges in Norway’s largest and deepest fjord, Sognefjorden. We also included two global mean sea surface models and NMBU18 for comparison. The results have shown that ICESat-2 is indeed able to provide more valid observations in the coastal zone, which can be used to improve the mean sea surface model, especially along the coast.

Evaluation of Radial Ocean Surface Currents Derived From Sentinel‐1 IW Doppler Shift Using Coastal Radar and Lagrangian Surface Drifter Observations

AbstractOcean surface radial velocities (RVLs) derived from the Sentinel‐1 A/B Interferomic Wide (IW) mode Doppler frequency shift observations are regularly acquired over the Norwegian coastal zone. These data can be used to complement existing ocean observation systems with high‐resolution (up to 1.5 × 1.5 km) spatial ocean surface current (OSC) maps. In this study, Sentinel‐1 IW Level 2 OSC retrievals were obtained from 2 months (October–November 2017) of raw Doppler shift observations acquired over the Norwegian Coastal Current (NCC). The results were evaluated using coastal high‐frequency radar (HFR) and Lagrangian ocean surface drifter observations. The analysis shows that distinct patterns of the NCC, with range directed currents reaching up to 0.7 m/s, can be detected in the SAR data. The mean bias between Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and HFR observations was −0.08 m/s and the root mean square deviation (RMSD) was 0.25 m/s. In comparison, the agreement between the SAR‐derived OSC and the trajectories from Lagrangian surface drifters showed a mean bias of 0.02 m/s and an RMSD of 0.24 m/s. The accuracy of the SAR OSC retrievals rely on precise wind‐wave bias correction. Hence, the accuracy of the model wind field (speed and direction) is crucial. The sea state contribution must also be taken into account during the bias correction. A typical required accuracy of the OSC velocity is on the order of 0.1 m/s. Therefore, the comparisons demonstrate that the use of SAR for OSC retrieval is promising.

Introducing the ecosystem services concept in Norwegian coastal zone planning

Increasing pressures on the coastal zone calls for new approaches to its governance. The ecosystem services (ES) concept has been presented as a solution for more integrated and ecosystem-based management, providing tools to categorise knowledge on ecosystems, the services they provide, and their value. This paper offers an analysis of the introduction of the ES concept into Norwegian coastal spatial planning as a new governance approach. The study is based on document analysis of relevant legal and policy documents, such as white papers, parliamentary bills, official reports, acts and regulations. Through this process this study finds that only incremental changes have been made to integrate the ES concept into the governance of the coastal zone. ES terms and methods to apply the concept in day-to-day governance have not yet been provided. The multilevel and multiscale governance system is not structured to accommodate such an intersectoral and interdisciplinary approach. The municipal planning system could however be well suited, in particular the strategic environmental assessments. The municipalities act like an integrating body, where the trade-offs between different uses or non-uses of natural resources are considered before making decisions. There is, however, a need for adapted knowledge databases, clarification of methods and training for the municipalities to be able to take on this task. If the government intends to introduce ES based management in Norway, a first step would be to designate the appropriate authority to facilitate a process of relevant authorities across sectors and/or levels to take on this task and to develop guidelines for municipal planners. The experience from Norway therefore shows that without a decision on how the concept should be implemented and who should provide the necessary tools for practitioners to apply, the ES concept will not be effectively integrated into the governance system.

Seabed sediments of Søre Sunnmøre, Norway

ABSTRACT An increasing number of activities compete for space in the Norwegian coastal zone, making access to detailed seabed information particularly valuable. We present a suite of thematic marine base maps of the near-shore areas of five municipalities in west Norway (567 km2; at 62°N/5°E). This set of full-coverage seabed maps includes sediment grain size, seabed terrain (shaded relief), slope, sediment accumulation basins, anchoring conditions, and diggability (trenching properties). The sediment grain size map is a geological interpretation of multibeam echosounder data supported by video observations and physical samples of seabed sediments. The other maps in the suite are derived from this sediment map, and/or directly from the bathymetry data. All maps are at a scale of 1:20,000 and are freely accessible for download or online viewing. Marine base maps are intended for all end-users with a need for knowledge of seabed conditions and may be especially valuable for marine spatial planning.

Governing for sustainability in the Norwegian aquaculture industry

Aquaculture in Norway is expected to grow radically in the years to come. From both the government and from the industry itself, there is a demand for developing policies that can accommodate this intensification in activity. However, the aquaculture industry in Norway is also met with considerable skepticism and resistance. Both NGOs and several researchers have voiced concerns in the media, expressing a need for more insight into this resistance. This article explores the attitudes of local residents and stakeholder groups towards aquaculture through a qualitative field study in a small coastal community. Data shows that attitudes are not necessarily a matter of being for or against aquaculture. The issue at stake is sustainability, as what residents and stakeholder groups want is sustainable aquaculture. However, how the different groups interpreted sustainability differed, both between groups and depending on the circumstances. Our analysis shows that interpretations are embedded in different world-views or orders of worth. In this article, we give empirical insight into the expressed attitudes of various stakeholder groups, discuss the underlying values and indicate possible implications these findings can have for policy-making in the Norwegian coastal zone.

Coastal sea level from CryoSat-2 SARIn altimetry in Norway

Conventional (pulse-limited) altimeters determine the sea surface height with an accuracy of a few centimeters over the open ocean. Sea surface heights and tide-gauge sea level serve as each other’s buddy check. However, in coastal areas, altimetry suffers from numerous effects, which degrade its quality. The Norwegian coast adds further challenges due to its complex coastline with many islands, mountains, and deep, narrow fjords.The European Space Agency CryoSat-2 satellite carries a synthetic aperture interferometric radar altimeter, which is able to observe sea level closer to the coast than conventional altimeters. In this study, we explore the potential of CryoSat-2 to provide valid observations in the Norwegian coastal zone. We do this by comparing time series of CryoSat-2 sea level anomalies with time series of in situ sea level at 22 tide gauges, where the CryoSat-2 sea level anomalies are averaged in a 45-km area around each tide gauge. For all tide gauges, CryoSat-2 shows standard deviations of differences and correlations of 16cm and 61%, respectively. We further identify the ocean tide and inverted barometer geophysical corrections as the most crucial, and note that a large amount of observations at land-confined tide gauges are not assigned an ocean tide value. With the availability of local air pressure observations and ocean tide predictions, we substitute the standard inverted barometric and ocean tide corrections with local corrections. This gives an improvement of 24% (to 12.2cm) and 12% (to 68%) in terms of standard deviations of differences and correlations, respectively.Finally, we perform the same in situ analysis using data from three conventional altimetry missions, Envisat, SARAL/AltiKa, and Jason-2. For all tide gauges, the conventional altimetry missions show an average agreement of 11cm and 60% in terms of standard deviations of differences and correlations, respectively. There is a tendency that results improve with decreasing distance to the tide gauge and a smaller footprint, underlining the potential of SAR altimetry in coastal zones.

Mapping Biological Resources in the Coastal Zone: An Evaluation of Methods in a Pioneering Study from Norway

For many years, the planning and management of terrestrial areas has been supported by a detailed knowledge of the distribution of habitats and their associated species. However, the detailed mapping of biological resources in extent coastal areas, such as the Norwegian coastal zone, is unrealistic due to its enormous coastline. Here, we present a useful and feasible approach and a set of simple, cost-effective methods which are suitable for providing a broad-scale overview of marine habitats and fish resources. This approach was developed in conjunction with a pioneer study conducted along the southern coast of the Skagerrak, where we combined knowledge gathered from local fishermen with scientific knowledge of important species and nature types to establish a coastal sea mapping program. GIS modeling tools were used in both the mapping program and to integrate local and scientific knowledge into digital maps made available to local area management. This multi-faceted approach, which combines local knowledge and scientific methods, provides valuable information with respect to marine biodiversity, and has been used extensively by local environmental management.

Inputs of chemicals from recreational activities into the Norwegian coastal zone

Wastewater treatment works effluent is often considered to be one of the most important point sources of a wide range of anthropogenic contaminants to aquatic systems, however, this paper discusses other potential sources. With the aim of establishing the important sources of UV filters, insect repellent and biocides to the aquatic environment, samples were collected from sites with direct (bathing areas and marinas) and indirect (sites receiving wastewater effluent) human influences. Sunscreens containing UV filters are used in large volumes during the summer months and often applied shortly before a person enters the water for swimming activities. The results presented here demonstrate that washing directly from the skin is an important point source of 4 UV filters to the Oslofjord. The insect repellent, diethyl toluamide, was also measured and it was concluded that washing from the skin was not such an important point source into the fjord. Concentrations of the biocide Irgarol 1051 were also measured and were elevated in the small boat marina and surrounding enclosed area. This work demonstrates that man recreational water-based activities are a diffuse source of some contaminants into coastal and fjord environments and this study provides an initial assessment of the levels being released.

Globalization, Sea Farming and Flexibility in Norwegian Coastal Zone Planning

Globalization, Sea Farming and Flexibility in Norwegian Coastal Zone Planning

Challenges and Myths in Norwegian Coastal Zone Management

Coastal Zone Management must address situations that are inherently complex, diverse, dynamic, and risky. What management systems are best able to handle such challenges? What ambitions are realistic for coastal zone managers? This article reflects on Norway's coastal zone management experience. In particular, we dwell with the tendency to postpone, or even neglect, making the hard decisions and to rationalize non-decision by referring to some beliefs or myths regarding the situation in the coastal zone, variously that (a) space is no limitation, (b) spatial delimitation is all it takes, and (c) coastal culture will always self-heal. Finally, we argue that risk-management may be a more fruitful/realistic management ambition than aiming for some positively defined goals.

Stakeholder participation in Norwegian coastal zone planning

This paper explores the practice of stakeholder participation in coastal zone (CZ) planning in Norway. On the basis of survey data drawn from a national sample of coastal municipalities, we first discuss how stakeholder groups take part in CZ planning and how variations in participatory forms are linked to their differential powers. Secondly, we examine to what extent formal consultation is sufficient to explain stakeholders’ relative standing in CZ planning, or if informal interaction is correlated with influence. We then turn to the question of whether participation is cumulative or not, in the sense that if stakeholders are involved in one way, they are also likely to be involved in another way. We conclude by addressing some issues of process design and the challenges of stakeholder involvement at a municipal level in Norwegian CZ planning.

In whose interest? An exploratory analysis of stakeholders in Norwegian coastal zone planning

In Norway, coastal zone management is formally structured in a way that involves stakeholders in the planning processes—in the anticipation that participation will make the process more democratic and hence legitimate. Whether this is also the actual outcome is an empirical question, depending on which stakeholders are most active and effective in the management decision-making process, and to what extent they are able to sort out their differences and conflicting aspirations. In this paper we present findings of an exploratory study of the coastal zone planning process in 27 Norwegian municipalities. We focus on stakeholder composition and key attributes. Who seems to make a real impact in the planning process? Who are the most powerful among the various parties involved? Whose interests and concerns are considered to be the most urgent and justifiable, as seen from the perspective of the administrators who are the key co-ordinators in the planning process?

A Landscape Ecological Approach to Coastal Zone Applications

Managing complex environments requires suitable tools to integrate data from a variety of sources and efficiently analyse and present them within a geographical context. Recently there has been a growing interest in the integration of geographical, environmental and behavioural data for use in coastal zone management and planning. Our study shows how easily accessible information on bathymetry, terrain variation and wind conditions may be integrated into a georeferenced model applied to the study of key species and ecosystems of the Norwegian coastal zone. Through case studies, we predicted kelp forest ( Laminaria hyperborea ) distribution and analysed harbour seal ( Phoca vitulina ) habitat selection. Combining information on depth and wind exposure derived from a digital terrain model was a suitable approach to predict kelp forest distribution, even though the prediction showed deviations from information provided by kelp harvesters. Including information on sea-bed sediment improved the predictive abil...

Comparison of the springtime vertical export of biogenic matter in three northern Norwegian fjords

A comparison of vertical flux of biogenic matter, phytoplankton and faecal pellets was carried out in April 1997 in 3 fjords, Ullsfjord, Balsfjord and Malangen, which exhibit different hydro- graphic conditions in the inner northern Norwegian coastal zone. Vertical export of biogenic matter was high (200 to 850 mg particulate organoc carbon (POC) m -2 d -1 ) compared to previous years, par- ticularly that of chlorophyll a (0.9 to 22 mg m -2 d -1 ). Some differences in the timing and composition between the fjords were detected, but on average, vertical export in the upper 100 m was similar in all three. Average phytoplankton carbon (PPC) sedimentation was 136 mg C m -2 d -1 , and it con- tributed 35 ± 12% to the vertical export of POC. The diatoms Thalassiosira angulata, T. norden- skioeldii, Chaetoceros socialis and C. furcellatus were by far the most important taxa, contributing on average 68% to the PPC export. Another dominant spring bloom species in northern Norwegian fjords, the colony-forming prymnesiophyte Phaeocystis pouchetii, contributed on average only 12% to the vertical PPC flux, and it was of minor importance in Balsfjord. In contradiction to previous find- ings in the area, vertical POC export was not dominated by faecal pellet carbon (FPC) (125 mg C m -2 d -1 ). While a significant export of FPC and retention of PPC was observed during the vernal blooms in 1982, 1992 and 1996 (PPC/FPC = 0.23 ± 0.02), a mismatch scenario was encountered in 1997 (PPC/ FPC = 1.32 ± 0.31), resulting in large-scale vertical export of diatoms. The differences in vertical export of biogenic matter between fjords were much smaller than interannual differences. It is sug- gested that interannual differences in oceanic-coastal coupling, crucial for the advection of meso- and macrozooplankton from the shelf adjacent to the fjords and for grazing, are the cause for the recurrent match and infrequent mismatch scenarios.

Coastal planning on the Atlantic fringe, north Norway: the power game

The article describes an on-going struggle between local planning authorities, regional fishery authorities and environmental authorities over the management of the Norwegian coastal zone. Particular reference is made to a recent planning project in Nordland County where 18 peripheral communes with weak planning traditions joined forces to produce structure plans for their coastal areas. Concepts of rationality and power are used as points of departure for an interpretation of the actions of the parties involved. The discursively rational nature of the planning project, embodying principles of consensus building, social integration and personal growth, is contrasted to the strictly instrumental behaviour of regional fishery and environmental authorities. The article also relates conflicts between communes and regional sector authorities to the power structure of the field of coastal management and the habitus of the different institutional actors. The actions of the fishery authorities are seen as a defence of their monopoly of the production of ideology in marine management, while the actions of the communes are interpreted as a bid by the periphery for greater control over local resources.

Challenges in Norwegian coastal zone planning

The article identifies some of the challenges facing local structure planing of sea areas since the mid-1980s, and asks what has been achieved. This question concerns the quality of plans as tools for spatial ordering and development. On the basis of theories of communicative and strategic planning, a framework of assessment is evolved round two main concepts: the legitimacy and the flexibility of plans. These are supplemented with a conformance concept applicable to project planning. The article then examines specific planning problems and assesses processes and achievements in selected fish-farming communes on the coast of West and North Norway.

Norwegian coastal zone planning

Bennett, R. G. 1996. Norwegian coastal zone planning. Norsk geogr. Tidsskr. Vol. 50, 201-213. Oslo. ISSN 0029-1951. Events leading up to the introduction of coastal zone planning by local authorities under the Planning and Building Act of 1986 are described. In examining the need for planning, a major distinction is made between the east and south of the country where development pressure on or near the shore lies at the focus of attention, and the west and north where planning is more concerned with the management of marine resources, resolution of user conflicts and creation of economic activity. Particular attention is paid to the planning implications of fish farming. The legal framework of planning is outlined, with particular reference to limitations on public action. Finally, a national overview of progress and problems in planning is presented, and the query is raised concerning to what extent coordination is achieved.

Nationwide assessment of the suitability of the Norwegian coastal zone and rivers for aquaculture (LENKA)

Abstract A coastal zone management program called LENKA—Nationwide Assessment of the Suitability of the Norwegian Coastal Zone and Rivers for Aquaculture— was started in 1987 and ended in the summer of 1990. The program aims to develop an efficient and standardized tool for coastal zone planning. In the program consideration is taken of all important existing utilization and judicial aspects connected to the Norwegian coastal waters. As part of the program a methodology for assessing the suitability of marine areas for aquaculture has been developed. The marine areas ‘ holding capacity is determined by a developed model. The main steps in the development of the capacity assessment are as follows: (1) An assessment of the maximum acceptable organic loading of the water body of the marine areas, which is arrived at by subtracting the existing inputs of organic loading and nutrients from the natural capacity of the area to tolerate organic loading and nutrients. (2) An assessment of the area available for aq...