Norwegian Boys Research Articles

Socioeconomic inequalities in substance use among Norwegian adolescents between 2014 and 2022

Abstract Background Increasing use of substances is observed among adolescents in recent years. Early onset of substance use dramatically increases the risk of substance use disorder, dependence, and poorer psychological, social, and physical health, and is thus a public health concern. We explore trends in socioeconomic inequalities in past year use of cannabis and other illicit drugs between 2014 and 2022 among Norwegian adolescents. Methods This study is based on data retrieved from five waves of the nationwide Norwegian Ungdata survey (2014-2022) among adolescents attending upper secondary education (N = 282,259; 51 % girls). Trends in socioeconomic inequalities were assessed using the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Relative Index of Inequality (RII). Results The use of cannabis and other illicit drugs increased among boys (from 13% to 19%, and from 2% to 5%, respectively) and girls (from 8% to 14%, and from 1% to 3%, respectively) between 2014 and 2022. Higher prevalence’s was observed among the least affluence girls between 2020 and 2022, both in absolute and relative terms (SII: 0.01 to 0.06, RII: 0.97 to 1.52, p < 0.001). No inequalities were observed among boys during this time. While relative and absolute inequalities in use of other illicit drugs decreased in boys, absolute inequalities increased in girls. Boys were more likely than girls to have used cannabis and other illicit drugs, although the gender gap in cannabis use narrowed slightly during the study period. Conclusions Our data suggest increasing use of cannabis and other illicit drugs among Norwegian adolescent boys and girls between 2014 and 2022. Future studies should examine the potential causes of increasing substance use as a basis for understanding, and distinguishing between, the many intertwining factors that influence adolescent drug use behaviors. Key messages • The use of cannabis and other illicit drugs increased between 2014 and 2022 among Norwegian boys and girls. • While inequalities in the use of cannabis and ither illicit drug use increased in girls, small or no inequalities was observed among boys.

Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Timing of Puberty in Norwegian Boys: Data from the Bergen Growth Study 2.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are widespread environmental contaminants with endocrine-disruptive properties. Their impact on puberty in boys is unclear. In this cross-sectional study, we investigated the association between PFAS exposure and pubertal timing in 300 Norwegian boys (9-16 years), enrolled in the Bergen Growth Study 2 during 2016. We measured 19 PFAS in serum samples and used objective pubertal markers, including ultrasound-measured testicular volume (USTV), Tanner staging of pubic hair development, and serum levels of testosterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone. In addition to logistic regression of single pollutants and the sum of PFAS, Bayesian and elastic net regression were used to estimate the contribution of the individual PFAS. Higher levels of the sum of perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS) were associated with later pubertal onset according to USTV (age-adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 2.20, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.29, 3.93) and testosterone level (AOR: 2.35, 95% CI: 1.34, 4.36). Bayesian modeling showed that higher levels of PFNA and PFHxS were associated with later pubertal onset by USTV, while higher levels of PFNA and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) were associated with later pubertal onset by testosterone level. Our findings indicate that certain PFAS were associated with delay in male pubertal onset.

Longitudinal changes in device-measured physical activity from childhood to young adulthood: the PANCS follow-up study

BackgroundThere is a lack of longitudinal studies examining changes in device-measured physical activity and sedentary time from childhood to young adulthood. We aimed to assess changes in device-measured physical activity and sedentary time from childhood, through adolescence, into young adulthood in a Norwegian sample of ostensibly healthy men and women.MethodsA longitudinal cohort of 731 Norwegian boys and girls (49% girls) participated at age 9 years (2005–2006) and 15 years (2011–2012), and 258 of these participated again at age 24 years (2019–2021; including the COVID-19 pandemic period). Physical activity and sedentary time were measured using ActiGraph accelerometers. Linear mixed models were used to analyse changes in physical activity and sedentary time and whether low levels of childhood physical activity track, i.e., persist into young adulthood (nchange=721; ntracking=640).ResultsThe most prominent change occurred between the ages of 9 to 15 years, with an increase in sedentary time (150 min/day) and less time spent in light (125 min/day), moderate (16 min/day), and vigorous physical activity (8 min/day). Only smaller changes were observed between the ages of 15 and 24 years. Changes in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity from childhood to young adulthood differed between subgroups of sex, tertiles of body mass index at baseline and tertiles of peak oxygen uptake at baseline. While the tracking models indicated low absolute stability of physical activity from childhood to young adulthood, children in the lowest quartiles of moderate-to-vigorous (OR:1.88; 95%CI: 1.23, 2.86) and total physical activity (OR: 1.87; 95%CI: 1.21, 2.87) at age 9 years were almost 90% more likely to be in these quartiles at age 24 years compared to those belonging to the upper three quartiles at baseline.ConclusionsWe found a substantial reduction in physical activity and increase in time spent sedentary between age 9 and 15 years. Contrary to previous studies, using mainly self-reported physical activity, little change was observed between adolescence and young adulthood. The least active children were more likely to remain the least active adults and could be targeted for early intervention.

The use of youth healthcare services and its association with health-related quality of life, physical and mental health and over-the-counter analgesics use in 13–19-year-old adolescents: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundYouth healthcare services in Norway include a public health nurse (PHN) at school and local youth health centres (YHCs). They provide health services for all adolescents free of charge, focusing on health promotion and disease prevention. The present study aimed to assess possible associations between health-related quality of life (HRQoL), physical and mental health, over-the-counter analgesics (OTCA) use and use of youth healthcare services among 13–19-year-old adolescents.MethodsThis study was based on national, cross-sectional data from the Ungdata Survey conducted in 2022. The sample was comprised of 16 482 adolescents. Multiple logistic regression was used to analyse the associations between HRQoL, headaches, selected physical symptoms, psychological distress, use of OTCA, PHN availability, sociodemographic variables, and use of the PHN at school or at a YHC. The KIDSCREEN-10 was used to measure HRQoL, and the Hopkins Symptoms Checklist 10 was used to measure symptoms of psychological distress.ResultsGirls used the youth healthcare services more frequently than boys. Better HRQoL was significantly associated with fewer visits to the PHN at school. Girls reported lower HRQoL and mental health, and more pain and frequent OTCA use than boys. When having symptoms of psychological distress, boys had greater odds of visiting the PHN at school than girls. For girls in senior high school, headaches and OTCA use were strongly associated with visiting the PHN at school and the YHC. In senior high school, boys with an immigration background had greater odds of visiting the YHC than native Norwegian boys, while girls with an immigration background were less likely to visit the YHC than native Norwegian girls.ConclusionsOur results show that more girls than boys use youth healthcare services. When adolescents experience pain, have mental problems, use OTCA, or report low levels of HRQoL, they have greater odds of using youth healthcare services. Youth healthcare services offer excellent opportunities to support and follow up with adolescents. The findings provide important insights into youth healthcare services used by adolescents for various stakeholders, including PHNs and policy makers, with potential implications for future public health efforts.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor activity in human breast milk and cryptorchidism: A case-control study within the prospective Norwegian HUMIS cohort

BackgroundThe etiology of cryptorchidism remains poorly understood. Endocrine disrupting chemicals can impact estrogen signaling by interacting with aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activity. ObjectiveTo evaluate whether AhR activity in breast milk samples is associated with cryptorchidism. MethodWe conducted a case-control study based on 199 mother-child pairs (n = 91 cases/108 controls) selected from the Norwegian Human Milk Study (2002–2009). We defined cases for cryptorchidism based on maternal reports at 1-, 6-, 12-, and 24- months after birth. Chemically- and biologically stable AhR activity (pg 2,3,7,8-TCDD equivalent (TEQ)/g lipid) was determined by DR- CALUX® assay in the mothers’ milk collected at a median of 33 (10th–90th percentile: 18–57) days after delivery. We used multivariate logistic regression to compare AhR activity levels between cases and controls, and linear regression separately, to establish the relationship with the presence of 27 potential EDCs measured in breast milk and AhR activity. ResultsThe average estimated daily intake (EDI) of dioxin and (dioxin-like (dl)-compounds via breast milk is 33.7 ± 17.9 pg TEQ/kg bodyweight per day among Norwegian children. There were no significant differences in AhR activation in breast milk samples between cases with cryptorchidism and controls. Among the 27 chemicals measured in breast milk, AhR activity was (borderline) significantly associated with all dl-PCBs, three non-dioxin-like (ndl)-PCBs (PCB-74, PCB-180, PCB-194) and two organochlorine pesticides (OCPs; HCB, β-HCH). No associations between AhR activity and brominated flame retardants (PBDEs) or poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). ConclusionNo association between AhR activity and cryptorchidism was found among Norwegian boys. The average EDI of dioxin and dl-compounds in exclusively breastfed Norwegian infants remains above the safety threshold and, therefore requires further reduction measures. Consistent with a possible role in the observed AhR activity, all dl-PCBs were associated with AhR activity whereas the association was null for either PBDEs or PFASs.

A pioneer study on human 3-nitropropionic acid intoxication: Contributions from metabolomics.

The neurotoxin 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NPA) is an inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme participating both in the citric acid cycle and the mitochondrial respiratory chain. In human intoxications, it produces symptoms such as vomiting and stomach ache in mild cases, and dystonia, coma, and sometimes death in severe cases. We report the results from a liquid chromatography-Orbitrap mass spectrometry metabolomics study mapping the metabolic impacts of 3-NPA intoxication in plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples of a Norwegian boy initially suspected to suffer from a mitochondrial disease. In addition to the identification of 3-NPA, our findings included a large number of annotated/identified altered metabolites (80, 160, and 62 in plasma, urine, and CSF samples, respectively) belonging to different compound classes, for example, amino acids, fatty acids, and purines and pyrimidines. Our findings indicated protective mechanisms to attenuate the toxic effects of 3-NPA (e.g., decreased oleamide), occurrence of increased oxidative stress in the patient (such as increased free fatty acids and hypoxanthine) and energy turbulence caused by the intoxication (e.g., increased succinate). To our knowledge, this is the first case of 3-NPA intoxication reported in Norway and the first published metabolomics study of human 3-NPA intoxication worldwide. The unexpected identification of 3-NPA illustrates the importance for health care providers to consider intake-related intoxications during diagnostic evaluations, treatment and follow-up examinations for neurotoxicity and a wide range of metabolic derangements.

The influence of snuff and smoking on bone accretion in late adolescence. The Troms\xf8 study, Fit Futures

SummaryAreal bone mineral density (aBMD) predicts future fracture risk. This study explores associations between use of tobacco and bone accretion in Norwegian adolescents. Our results indicate that use of snuff is negatively associated with accretion of aBMD in adolescence and may be a signal of increased future fracture risk.PurposeBone mineral accrual in childhood and adolescence is a long-term primary preventive strategy of osteoporosis. Areal bone mineral density (aBMD) is a surrogate measure of bone strength and a predictor of fracture risk. The aim of this population-based 2-year follow-up cohort study was to explore associations between use of snuff and smoking and changes (∆) in aBMD in Norwegian girls and boys aged 15–17 years at baseline.MethodsThe first wave of the Tromsø study, Fit Futures was conducted from 2010 to 2011. Femoral neck (FN), total hip (TH), and total body (TB) bone mineral content (BMC) and aBMD were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Information on use of snuff, smoking habits, and other lifestyle related variables were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Two years later, during 2012–2013, the measurements were repeated in the second wave. The present study included 349 girls and 281 boys and compared “non-users” (n = 243 girls, 184 boys) with “users” (n = 105 girls, 96 boys) of snuff and “non-smokers” (n = 327 girls, 249 boys) with “smokers” (n = 21 girls, 31 boys) using linear regression adjusted for age, baseline height and weight, change in height and weight, pubertal maturation, physical activity, ethnicity, alcohol consumption, diagnosis known to affect bone, and medication known to affect bone. The influence of “double use” on bone accretion was also explored.ResultsIn girls, no associations between use of snuff and ∆aBMD were found. In boys, use of snuff was associated with reduced bone accretion in all ∆aBMD models. Sensitivity analysis with exclusion of “sometimes” users of snuff strengthened associations at femoral sites in girls and attenuated all associations in boys. In girls, no associations between smoking and ∆aBMD were found. In boys, only the association with TB ∆aBMD was significant in the fully adjusted models. In girls, “double users” analyses showed similar association to smoking. In boys, nearly all models showed statistically significant associations with a difference of ~ 1–2% in ∆aBMD between “non-users” and “double users” during 2 years of follow-up.ConclusionsOur results indicate that tobacco use in late adolescence could be detrimental to bone accretion and may be a signal of increased fracture risk in adult life.

Anti-androgenic compounds in breast milk and cryptorchidism among Norwegian boys in the HUMIS birth cohort

The prevalence of cryptorchidism has increased over the past decades, yet its origins remain poorly understood. Testis descent is dependent on androgens and likely affected by endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), targeting the androgen receptor (AR). We investigated the association between anti-androgenic activity, not derived from natural hormones, in maternal breast milk and impaired testis descent among boys. We performed a case-control study based on 199 breast milk samples from 94 mothers of cryptorchid boys and 105 random non-cryptorchid boys participating in the Norwegian HUMIS (Human Milk Study) cohort. For each participant, apolar, and polar fractions were extracted, and combined to reconstitute a mixture. Anti-androgenic activity was measured in all three fractions using the human cell-based in vitro anti-AR CALUX® assay and expressed in μg of flutamide equivalent, a well-known antiandrogen. Results from fraction analyses were compared among boys with cryptorchidism and controls using multiple logistic regression, controlling for appropriate confounders identified using a directed acyclic graph. Children's daily exposure to anti-androgenic EDCs through breastfeeding was estimated to 78 μg flutamide eq./kg of body weigh/day. The activity was higher in the polar fraction (1.48 ± 1.37 μg flutamide eq./g of milk) mainly representing non-persistent chemicals, in contrast to other fractions. However, the activity in the polar extracts was decreased when in mixtures with the apolar fraction, indicating synergistic interactions. No significant difference in the activity was observed according to cryptorchid status for polar, apolar or mixed breast milk fractions. The study showed anti-androgenic activity in nearly all human milk samples, and at levels higher than the advisory threshold. However, no significant association was observed between cryptorchidism and antiandrogenic activity measured in either polar, apolar, or mixture fractions derived from breast milk.

Inclusion of immigrant students in schools: the role of introductory classes and other segregated efforts

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper was to investigate structural aspects of inclusion of immigrant students in Norwegian multicultural schools and, more specifically, their experiences of introductory classes and other segregated efforts. Due to their need for Norwegian language education, newly arrived immigrant students are not necessarily physically integrated into mainstream classes during their first two years of schooling, and they are also often taken out of their classes after they have been assigned to mainstream classes. This study had a qualitative design, and semi structured interviews are used to gather the data. The sample consisted of six immigrant boys, six native Norwegian boys and six teachers in secondary schools. The immigrant students had lived in Norway for two to four years. The results showed that introductory classes seemed not to be sufficiently adjusted to the students’ need for inclusion but operated more as a fixed structural measure for second language learning. As the introductory classes and other segregated efforts often diverged from ordinary subjects and class times, it is possible that introductory and segregated efforts contribute to maintaining segregation more than they result in inclusion experiences.

Reference data for testicular volume measured with ultrasound and pubic hair in Norwegian boys are comparable with Northern European populations

To estimate references for testicular volume measured with ultrasound and Tanner stages of pubic hair in Norwegian boys, and to compare the timing of puberty with data from similar populations. Testicular volume was derived from ultrasound measurements of testicular volume in a cross-sectional study of 514 healthy boys. A continuous testicular volume for age reference curve was estimated with the LMS method. Tanner stages for pubic hair were clinically assessed in 452 boys. Age references for pubertal milestones were estimated with probit regression. Puberty onset, defined by an ultrasound testicular volume of 2.7mL, equivalent to an orchidometer volume of 4mL, occurred at a mean (SD) age of 11.7 (1.1) years. The reference range was 9.7 (3rd) to 13.7years (97th percentile). Pubic hair (Tanner stage 2) appeared on average at 11.8 (1.2) years with a corresponding reference range of 9.5-14.1years. The references for testicular volume measured with ultrasound are continuous in age and allow for the quantification of pubertal development. The age distribution of reaching pubertal milestones was comparable with data from other Northern European countries.

Testicular Ultrasound to Stratify Hormone References in a Cross-Sectional Norwegian Study of Male Puberty.

Testicular growth represents the best clinical variable to evaluate male puberty, but current pediatric hormone references are based on chronological age and subjective assessments of discrete puberty development stages. Determination of testicular volume (TV) by ultrasound provides a novel approach to assess puberty progression and stratify hormone reference intervals. The objective of this article is to establish references for serum testosterone and key hormones of the male pituitary-gonadal signaling pathway in relation to TV determined by ultrasound. Blood samples from 414 healthy Norwegian boys between ages 6 and 16 years were included from the cross-sectional "Bergen Growth Study 2." Participants underwent testicular ultrasound and clinical assessments, and serum samples were analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry and immunoassays. We present references for circulating levels of total testosterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, and sex hormone-binding globulin in relation to TV, chronological age, and Tanner pubic hair stages. In pubertal boys, TV accounted for more variance in serum testosterone levels than chronological age (Spearman r = 0.753, P < .001 vs r = 0.692, P < .001, respectively). Continuous centile references demonstrate the association between TV and hormone levels during puberty. Hormone reference intervals were stratified by TV during the pubertal transition. Objective ultrasound assessments of TV and stratification of hormone references increase the diagnostic value of traditional references based on chronological age or subjective staging of male puberty.

Diagnosis of hyperkinetic disorder among children in Norway.

Hyperkinetic disorder is one of the most frequently used psychiatric diagnoses among children and adolescents in Norway. It has previously been shown that use of the diagnosis varies widely by county. We estimated the proportion of children with hyperkinetic disorder using patient data from the Norwegian Patient Registry and population data from the Norwegian Population Registry. The estimations were made for both Norway as a whole and by county. Assessment and documentation of the diagnosis were surveyed by linking the Norwegian Patient Registry and the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study. We reviewed medical records from specialist mental health services for children and adolescents and assessed whether the diagnoses met the research criteria for hyperkinetic disorder. At 12 years of age, 5.4 % of Norwegian boys and 2.1 % of Norwegian girls had been diagnosed with hyperkinetic disorder by specialist health services. The proportion of children varied between 1.4 % and 5.5 % among the counties. A review of medical records for 549 children showed that 49 % of the diagnoses were reliably documented in the records. The main reasons that the diagnosis was not documented were a discrepancy between the information in the medical record and diagnostic criteria (38 %) and inadequate differential diagnostic assessment (46 %). There was considerable geographic variation in the proportions of children and adolescents with hyperkinetic disorder. A large percentage of the diagnoses were not reliably documented in medical records. The guideline for evaluation, diagnostics and medical recordkeeping should be reviewed.

15 year old Norwegian boy with MOG-antibody positive demyelinating disease

15 year old Norwegian boy with MOG-antibody positive demyelinating disease

A novel mutation in FBXL4 in a Norwegian child with encephalomyopathic mitochondrial DNA depletion syndrome 13

Mitochondrial DNA depletion syndromes (MTDPS) represent a clinically and genetically heterogeneous group of autosomal recessive disorders, caused by mutations in genes involved in maintenance of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Biallelic mutations in FBXL4 were recently described to cause encephalomyopathic MTDPS13. The syndrome has infantile onset and presents with hypotonia, feeding difficulties, a pattern of mild facial dysmorphisms, global developmental delay and brain atrophy. Laboratory investigations reveal elevated blood lactate levels, unspecific mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) enzyme deficiencies and mtDNA depletion. We report a novel missense variant, c.1442T > C (p.Leu481Pro), in FBXL4 (NM_012160.4) in a Norwegian boy with clinical, biochemical and cerebral MRI characteristics consistent with MTDPS13. The FBXL4 c.1442T > C (p.Leu481Pro) variant was not present in public databases, 149 Norwegian controls nor an in-house database containing whole exome sequencing data from 440 individuals, and it was predicted in silico to be deleterious to the protein function. Activities of MRC enzymes were normal in muscle tissue (complexes I–IV) and cultured skin fibroblasts (complexes I–V) from the patient, but mtDNA depletion was confirmed in muscle, thus supporting the predicted pathogenicity of the FBXL4 c.1442T > C (p.Leu481Pro) variant. On clinical indication of mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, sequencing of FBXL4 should be performed, even when the activity levels of the MRC enzymes are normal.

Leisure time computer use and adolescent bone health—findings from the Tromsø Study, Fit Futures: a cross-sectional study

ObjectivesLow levels of physical activity may have considerable negative effects on bone health in adolescence, and increasing screen time in place of sporting activity during growth is worrying. This study...

More than half of high school students report disordered eating: a cross sectional study among Norwegian boys and girls.

Disordered eating and eating disorders are of great concern due to their associations with physical and mental health risks. Even if adolescence has been identified as the most vulnerable time for developing disordered eating, few studies have used a broad spectrum of criteria to investigate the prevalence of disordered eating among high school students of both genders, in different programs of study, nor assessed correlates of disordered eating among this important target group. The purposes of this study were therefore to investigate the prevalence and correlates of disordered eating among both male and female high school students in sport-, general and vocational programs. A comprehensive questionnaire was completed by 2,451 students (98.7%), aged 15–17 years. The total prevalence of disordered eating was 54.9%, with 64.3% among girls and 45.0% among boys (p<0.001). The highest prevalence of disordered eating was found among vocational students (60.7%), followed by students in general programs (49.8%) and sport students (38.3%) (p<0.001). Female gender, school program (vocational and general), overweight/obesity and weight regulation were positively associated with disordered eating. The high prevalence indicates the importance of tailored prevention efforts directed at high school students, particularly in vocational programs. Furthermore, a smaller girls–boys ratio than expected indicates that the efforts to identify and manage disordered eating among high school students should include both genders.

Prevalence and correlates of unhealthy weight control behaviors: findings from the national longitudinal study of adolescent health

BackgroundA recent study examined the prevalence, clinical correlates, age trends, and stability of unhealthy weight control behaviors (UWCB; purging and diet pill use) in a nationally representative sample of Norwegian boys and girls. The purpose of this study was to provide similar, comparative analyses for a nationally representative sample of American youth.MethodsData were extracted from the restricted use data files of survey Waves I, II, and III of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), selecting all participants who at Wave I had provided information on age, sex, and UWCB. Using UWCB information, three groups were created (purging, diet pill use, and no recent UWCB “controls”) and compared on indicators of adverse health or mental health.ResultsGirls consistently were more likely than boys to report UWCB. UWCB were significantly associated with higher body mass index, self-perception of being overweight, low self-esteem, depression, and delinquency. Prevalence estimates for purging remained relatively constant across the three survey waves; in contrast, diet pill use was especially common at Wave III.ConclusionsAge trends, gender differences, and clinical correlates of change in the likelihood of UWCB between Waves I-III were all identified in analyses comparing purging and diet pill use in American adolescents. Females and older adolescents were specifically more likely to engage in pill use than purging, and individuals with increased weight dissatisfaction, a history of delinquent behaviors, more depression symptoms, or lower self-esteem were more likely to engage in an unhealthy weight control behavior over time. While the Norwegian study found that prevalence of purging was lower among young adult participants, our results suggested that there were no significant differences in prevalence between age groups.

Motor-life-skills of toddlers – a comparative study of Norwegian and British boys and girls applying the Early Years Movement Skills Checklist

ABSTRACTThis article discusses motor-life-skills in a sample (n = 1083) of 33 months (2.9-year-old) children in Norwegian early childhood education and care institutions (ECEC-institutions) and to compare the findings with the results from a similar British sample. The Early Years Movement Skills Checklist (EYMSC) (Chambers and Sugden 2006) was applied. EYMSC consists of four distinct categories; self-help skills, desk skills, general classroom skills and recreational/playground skills. The current study aims: (a) to compare the findings in the Norwegian sample with the sample of British children assessed by Chambers and Sugden (2006); and (b) to study possible gender differences in motor skills in this very young age group. Each child was assessed independently by two staff members familiar with the child in informal situations in kindergartens over a period of three months. Results: The Norwegian sample of (younger) children revealed relatively high motor competence compared to the slightly older British sample. Indications for cultural differences are possibly in line with stereotypical expectations of the Norwegian and British early childhood education systems. Gender-based differences in favour of girls were documented; supporting the assumption that gender differences in motor competency may be highly task-dependent.

Meal pattern among Norwegian primary-school children and longitudinal associations between meal skipping and weight status.

To investigate meal pattern longitudinally and explore whether meal skipping was associated with overweight among Norwegian children and adolescents. Longitudinal study. Children's meal frequencies were reported by their parents using a retrospective FFQ. Weight and height were measured by public health nurses. Descriptive data comparing 4th and 7th grade were analysed by paired-sample t tests for continuous variables and χ 2 tests for categorical variables. Odds ratio estimates, including confidence intervals, with BMI category (normal/overweight) as the dependent variable, were determined through logistic regression analyses. Primary schools, Telemark County, Norway. A cohort of 428 Norwegian boys and girls; 4th graders in 2007, 7th graders in 2010. The number of children eating four main meals per day (regular meal frequency) decreased from 4th grade (47 %) to 7th grade (38 %; P = 0·001). Those who ate regular meals in 4th grade but not in 7th grade had higher odds (OR = 3·1; 95 % CI 1·1, 9·0) of being overweight in 7th grade after adjusting for gender, maternal education and physical activity, but the odds ratio was not statistically significant after adjusting for overweight in 4th grade (OR = 2·8; 95 % CI 0·7, 11·6). The present study showed significant increases in overall meal skipping among children between 4th and 7th grade. The results indicate an association between overweight and meal skipping, but additional prospective and longitudinal analyses and intervention trials are warranted to confirm this relationship.

Treatment Outcomes and Mediators of Parent Management Training: A One-Year Follow-Up of Children with Conduct Problems

This effectiveness study presents the results of a 1-year follow-up of a randomized controlled trial of Parent Management Training. Families of 112 Norwegian girls and boys with clinic-level conduct problems participated, and 75 (67%) families were retained at follow-up. Children ranged in age from 4 to 12 at intake (M = 8.44). Families randomized to the control group received an active treatment alternative as would be normally offered by participating agencies. Multi-informant, multisetting outcome measures were collected and results from both intention-to-treat and treatment-on-the-treated analyses are presented. In two separate indirect effects models, assignment to Parent Management Training—the Oregon model predicted greater effective discipline and family cohesion at postassessment, which in turn predicted improvements in several child domains at follow-up.