Norwegian Armed Forces Research Articles

No Country for Old Men? Increasing the Retirement Age in the Norwegian Armed Forces

ABSTRACT Ageing workforces due to low fertility rates and higher life expectancies challenge modern industrialized economies. In order to secure economic welfare and to balance public budgets, governments worldwide implement reforms to increase the retirement age. The trend towards a higher retirement age confronts defense sectors that for centuries have been in search of an age structure characterized by ‘youth and vigor’. In this article, we study the economic gains to society when the special retirement age for military personnel in the Norwegian Armed Forces is increased. Combining the literatures on pension, personnel, and military economics, we identify mechanisms crucial to the outcome of a special retirement age reform. Monte Carlo simulation is applied to illustrate the potential impact on the economic net gains of uncertain variables. We find that an increase in the retirement age provides substantial net benefits to society, even under fairly negative assumptions about the consequences for retention, motivation and efforts, and the value of elderly personnel in the Norwegian Armed Forces.

Fit for fight \u2013 self-reported health in military women: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundSubstantial research has found that women assess their health as poor relative to men, but the reasons for this are not fully understood. Military women are characterised by good health and the ability to work in an archetypically male culture. Thus, studies on the gender pattern of self-reported health in military personnel could generate hypotheses for future research on the possible associations between gender and health. However, such studies are rare and limited to a few countries. The aim of this study was to examine self-reported physical and mental health in Norwegian military women.MethodsWe compared responses on self-reported health of 1068 active duty military women in Norway to those of active duty military men (n = 8100). Further, we compared the military women to civilian women working in the Norwegian Armed Forces (n = 1081). Participants were stratified into three age groups: 20–29; 30–39; and 40–60 years. We used Pearson Chi-square tests, Students t-tests and regression models to assess differences between the groups.ResultsThe military women in our study reported physical illness and injuries equal to those of military men, but more military women used pain relieving and psychotropic drugs. More military women aged 20–29 and 30–39 years reported mental health issues than military men of the same age. In the age group 30–39 years, twice as many military women assessed their health as poor compared to military men. In the age group 40–60 years, more military women than men reported musculoskeletal pain. Military women used less smokeless tobacco than military men, but there were few differences in alcohol consumption and smoking. Military women appeared to be more physically healthy than civilian women, but we found few differences in mental health between these two groups.ConclusionMost military women reported physical symptoms equal to those of military men, but there were differences between the genders in mental health and drug use. More favourable health compared to civilian women was most evident in the youngest age group and did not apply to mental health.

Lost in Transition: The Dissemination of Digitization and the Challenges of Leading in the Military Educational Organization.

Leading change in adult educational organizations is not frequently described in the leadership literature. The education sector in the Norwegian Armed Forces (NAF) is in the middle of an educational reform that requires major changes. More students, fewer teachers and new organization of the studies as well as requirements for an increasingly updated technological expertise may mean that it will be necessary to increase the use of digital teaching aids. However, this is not systematically communicated as part of the reform in the same way as new topics of study. From a teacher’s perspective, the most important thing is to safeguard the quality of the education and ensure that important topics do not disappear in a reform. Therefore, one can well imagine that the focus on the purpose of change and the need for active participation is overlooked or not prioritized. Our focus in the process was largely the study content and some concern about the increase in the number of cadets. After completing the first courses in the new education, we were therefore quite surprised that the cadets were asked in the course evaluation whether digital aids had been used in the teaching, As a result, we were inspired to look more closely at what requirements were set and whether more exact plans had been prepared for the introduction of digitization of education as part of the reform process. Since the education reform in the NAF results in such a fundamental change, our perspectives may possibly benefit staffs at other colleges who are going to carry out major change processes. The main goal of this study was to investigate if or how the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research’s intention of digitization and its specific primary goals of learning and teaching trickle down through the hierarchies and into the study programs at the Norwegian Military Academy (NMA). To see if the Ministry’s intentions were actually understood and realized, as our second aim we investigated whether we found the concepts of digitization or digital tools mentioned in any of the Norwegian Defence University College’s (NDUC) study programs and subject plans for teaching. These intentions cannot be implemented unless they are enshrined in the study programs. As a third aim we also tried to find out whether digitization and digital tools actually had been used in the teaching in the new NAF Basic Officer Education, as this would reflect how the Ministry’s intention of digitization and specific primary goals of learning and teaching had been realized. We used a mixed methods approach in the study as we first investigated documents compiled from the government issued for the university and college sector in Norway, the NAF and the NDUC to see if the overall plan for digitization from the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research could be traced. In addition, we investigated the answers that officer cadets had given to questions in three course evaluations related to the use of digital tools in their education. Our three hypotheses were the following: Hypothesis 1: Several of the requirements for digitization have disappeared in the dissemination of the documents from the Ministry to the NAF Basic Officer Education. Hypothesis 2: No plan has been prepared as part of the educational change process for the introduction and implementation of new digital tools in the NAF Basic Officer Education. Hypothesis 3: It is up to the individuals to introduce and implement the use of new digital tools in the NAF Basic Officer Education. We found support for the two first out of our three hypotheses. The latter proved difficult to investigate with the means available, but we will nevertheless discuss some assumptions we have formed, based on the findings that the survey revealed. Hypothesis 3 only received partial support. Finally, the article discusses some leadership challenges that arise from the results we found. The study thus shows how long it can take from the Ministry issues its intention until it is actually implemented in practice at the NDUC. The final comments may also give an indication of how this process may be better focused and thus become likely to increase the implementation rate of digitization.

MILITARY ASSISTANCE, FOREIGN POLICY, AND NATIONAL SECURITY

From the inauguration of the Mutual Defense Assistance Program (MDAP) in 1950, until its termination in the early 1960s, Norway was among the main European beneficiaries of military assistance from the United States. Previous research on this subject has mainly seen the MDAP from the perspective of the recipient, analysing what effect the influx of large amounts of equipment had for the shape and development of the Norwegian Armed Forces. This article discusses the motives for US military assistance to Norway, and analyses this activity as an expression of US Cold War objectives concerning Norway and NATO’s northern flank. The article also explores how these objectives influenced policy making relevant to military assistance, and gives particular attention to the role of US representatives in Oslo. These actors played an important role in highlighting the political and strategic benefits of extensive aid to Norway.

Meat Reduction by Force: The Case of “Meatless Monday” in the Norwegian Armed Forces

Despite the scientific evidence that more plants and less animal-based food is more sustainable, policy interventions to reduce meat consumption are scarce. However, campaigns for meat free days in school and office canteens have spread globally over the last years. In this paper, we look at the Norwegian Armed Forces’ attempt to introduce the Meatless Monday campaign in their camps, and we evaluate the implementation process as well as the effect of the campaign on soldiers. Qualitative interviews with military staff indicate that lack of conviction about benefits of meat reduction, and the fact that kitchen staff did not feel ownership to the project, partly explain why vegetarian measures were not fully implemented in all the camps. A multivariate regression analysis with survey data from soldiers indicate that those who have experienced meat free days in the military kitchen are more prone to claim that joining the military has given them a more positive view on vegetarian food. Furthermore, the survey gives evidence that stated willingness to eat more vegetarian food is higher among soldiers who believe in the environmental and health benefits of meat reduction.

Competence for the Unforeseen: Social Support and Concurrent Learning as Basic Components of Interaction Under Risk

This study examines the importance of basic educational, organizational and operational structures of interaction under risk, and how these vary with competence level within an organization. The purpose of this study is to examine whether there are any basic components that can provide further insight into how competence for interaction under risk can be developed and implemented. The first aim was, therefore, to examine the relationship between components of the basic educational, organizational and operational structures and interaction. The second was to assess whether the perceived level of interaction varies due to competence level, controlling for gender, age, and professional experience. The third aim was to determine whether competence level group membership could be predicted by interaction, social support and the specified educational and organizational components. A questionnaire survey was carried out in the autumn of 2017. The respondents were male or female employees of the Norwegian Armed Forces (n =917). A purposive expert sample of 20 different units with different levels of competence were selected and included commissioned and non-commissioned officers, officer cadets, and conscripts. A total of 1050 personnel were employed by these units. All the employees were asked to participate. The response rate was 87%. The results showed that social support and concurrent learning were the most important predictors of interaction. Social support and concurrent learning combined with basic capabilities, organizational improvisation, training on decision-making, flexibility, general preparedness, and contingency plans accounted for a considerable proportion of the variance in interaction. Interaction, social support, and the specified educational, organizational and operational structure components were also significantly associated with competence level and competence group membership. The results showed that it could be possible to prepare for unforeseen events by implementing in particular social and educational measures that improve interaction. This study should be especially relevant to those involved in handling and stabilizing unforeseen events and emergency preparedness management.

Uncertainty handling in estimative intelligence – challenges and requirements from both analyst and consumer perspectives

Important assessments of events and activities relating to military, terrorist and hybrid adversaries and the intentions of foreign governments, are made every day, usually involving subjective or ‘estimative’ probabilities and an associated level of confidence. The way in which these uncertainties are accessed and communicated can potentially have enormous impact and consequences. Challenges are reinforced by increasingly complex intelligence problems for which the contemporary analytic paradigm is not tailored to cope. It is important to better understand how defence intelligence analysts and consumers handle uncertainty in their assessment and decision support activities and what challenges and requirements they face in doing so. This is mainly achieved by the use of semi-structured interviews with a sample of very senior consumers of military intelligence (mostly Flag Officers of the Norwegian Armed Forces) and focus group interviews with groups of Norwegian intelligence analysts. In general, respondents found it difficult or challenging to conceptualize uncertainty analytically. This has implications for the communication of uncertainty and its use in decision-making within the current framework. Secondly, respondents were receptive to suggested potential improvements to the existing framework. One such suggestion involved a differentiated framework, offering different levels of uncertainty resolution in different situations, although none of the respondents had any experience of such a framework for assessing or communicating uncertainty. We conclude with some recommendations to improve the process of uncertainty and risk communication in this important and consequential application area. Having particular implications for policy, we recommend that analysts follow a differentiated approach in handling different situations and problems comprising uncertainty, rather than pursuing a standard solution as is current practice.

The Queen Bees and the Women's Team - A contextual examination of enmity and friendship between military women

In several studies of women in the Norwegian Armed Forces, we have found an assertion that female groups are so riddled with conflicts and enmity that it is preferable to keep women few in number and mixed up with men, even in dormitories (Hellum 2014; Lilleaas and Ellingsen 2014; Rones 2015). Yet, when the Norwegian Special Operations Command (NORSOC) organized an all-female Special Reconnaissance Platoon, the NORSOC leadership would conclude that they had seen “almost disappointingly little of the conflicts that allegedly should occur in groups of females” (Rones and Steder 2017). Accordingly, this article will critically explore the assertion that women are often so quarrelsome that it is preferable to keep them few in number and mixed with men 24/7.It will be argued that women’s alleged tendency towards enmity is a myth that is made ‘true’ by ‘queen bee behavior’. Queen bee behavior is seen as an act of recognition, whereby women comply with existing gender stereotypes, evaluate women negatively, but set themselves apart from the category of ‘women’ as someone who fits better with men, i.e. a performance of complicit masculinity. It is further argued that queen bee behavior is a response to the social-identity threat women experience when they enter a unit in which their gender has a low reputation and status, and where it is expected that a woman should fit seamlessly in as one of the guys, and accordingly have to make a symbolic ‘change of gender’.

Sleep deprivation and hallucinations. A qualitative study of military personnel

ABSTRACTMuch anecdotal evidence suggests that sleep deprivation not only impairs performance, but also brings about other extraordinary effects like hallucinations. However, knowledge about how sleep deprivation may trigger hallucinations is limited. To qualitatively describe hallucinatory experiences during sleep deprivation 12 male military officers from the Norwegian Armed Forces who all had experienced at least one sleep loss-induced hallucinatory experience were recruited. Data were collected and analyzed by semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis. This resulted in the identification of three distinct main themes: (1) Modalities, (2) circumstances/triggers and (3) reactions to hallucinations. Hallucinations were experienced in several modalities (visual, auditory and multi-modality), although visual hallucinations seemed to dominate. Typical reported circumstances/triggers were sleep loss, physical exhaustion, time-of-day, low calorie intake, mental exhaustion and lack of external stimuli (low sensory and social input, boring situations, and monotonous activity). Negative emotions were dominant during the hallucinatory episodes. Often some reasoning and checking on behalf of the officers were necessary to differentiate between real percepts and hallucinations. In some cases the hallucinations caused erroneous actions. Retrospectively, most officers viewed their hallucinatory experiences in light of positive emotions and several emphasized having learned something from them. The results are discussed in relation to the existing literature and suggestions for future studies are outlined.

Frosbite in the Norwegian Armed Forces. Incidence of frostbite among conscripts serving in the Northern Norway, and self-reported long-term sequela following frostbite injury among Norwegian Armed Forces personnel

Introduction Humans have suffered frostbite at all times when exposed to cold surroundings. The oldest known case of frostbite is a 5000-year-old Chilean mummy. Most Norwegian military personnel are exposed to temperatures below the freezing point during a part of their service period, and a portion of the soldiers will suffer frostbite each year. Frostbite may cause chronic sequela, with symptoms such as cold-hypersensitivity, chronic pain, hyperhidrosis and paresthesia with an electric-shock feeling. The Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry (NAFHR) was established in 2005 to supervise the health of Norwegian soldiers, and to produce statistics and research to get new knowledge about the health of military personnel. Norwegian soldiers who experience a frostbite during military service, and consult a military medical doctor for this injury, are registered in the NAFHR. In this study, we assessed the incidence of frostbite among conscripts in the Norwegian Armed Forces during a five-year period (2010–2014). We also report on self-reported long-term sequela following a frostbite injury during service in the Armed Forces in the same period. Methods To calculate the incidence of frostbites, we identified all conscripts suffering a frostbite (ICD-codes T34, T35) during service at the garrisons in Northern Norway in the period January 1st, 2010 to December 31st, 2014, registered in the NAFHR. The Norwegian Armed Forces Personnel Register supplied us with an estimate of the total number of conscripts doing their military service at the same garrisons during the same period. To assess long-term sequela after frostbite, all military personnel diagnosed with frostbite during the same period received a questionnaire via the internet-based tool Confirmit, asking them to confirm their frostbite-diagnosis. We also asked if they had any sequela from the frostbite injury, and if so, the degree of symptoms from the sequela. Results A total of 563 conscripts serving in Northern Norway were diagnosed with frostbite during the observation period. In total, approximately 2700 conscripts served in Northern Norway each year during the observation period. Based on these numbers, the yearly incidence of frostbite is approximately 2,5% among Norwegian conscripts serving in Northern Norway. When including all types of military personnel, we identified 810 soldiers with a frostbite-diagnosis during the five-year period. We sent all of them a questionnaire via e-mail. Eighty-six questionnaires were not delivered due to faulty e-mail addresses; hence, 724 persons received the questionnaire. Of the 478 persons that returned the questionnaire, 18 persons did not want to participate in the survey. Hence, 460 persons answered the questionnaire, a response-rate of 66%. Of these persons, 397 confirmed that they had experienced a frostbite during military service. The majority were men (80%), and median age was 20 years. Three hundred and twenty-two persons (81%) reported that they suffered frostbite during military winter training, and almost everyone had suffered frostbite on fingers/hands or toes/feet (96%). Seventy percent reported that they had sequela, and 20% reported sequela with serious symptoms affecting their daily life more than two years after the frostbite. Conclusion Frostbite is a significant health problem among Norwegian military personnel. In our study, seventy percent of the persons who suffered frostbite during military service reported sequela, and one fifth reported chronic sequela with serious symptoms affecting their daily living more than two years after the frostbite.

The Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry and use of military screening data to evaluate changes in IQ scores over time

Introduction Up to the year 2009, all young Norwegian men were obliged to attend military medical examinations to assess their suitability for military service. Since 2010, both sexes have been required to complete a health-assessment questionnaire for the Norwegian conscription board when they turn eighteen. Based on the responses, a portion is called for comprehensive medical examinations. These examinations include tests of physical fitness and intellectual performance, review of any documented disease or disability, general clinical examinations and interviews, tests of visual acuity and colour vision, and audiometry. The data are stored in the Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry (NAFHR) in accordance with the Act on Health Registers and Health Information. The register is maintained for the purpose of monitoring the health of the Armed Forces Personnel and identifying risk factors associated with military service. Currently, the NAFHR contains health data on 1.2 million men and 63,500 women born between 1926 and 1998. The annual coverage varies as military screening is constantly changing in line with the Armed Forces’ need for personnel. The NAFHR includes data on 90–95% of the annual male birth cohorts born between 1950 and 1991. The data collected at the military medical examinations has been applied in public health research since 1996. This is made possible by linking the NAFHR data with national registries on health, education, work and social benefits. The research has provided insight into i.e. how factors related to neonatal life/birth and family affects the adult body and cognitive performance and has helped to understand how mental and physical health in adolescence is associated with important public health problems in adulthood. Similar data are available in several European countries, enabling large multinational studies and comparisons between countries. In light of the recent debate on possibly decreasing trends in intelligence scores in the Scandinavian countries, we examined secular trends of intellectual performance in Norway. Methods The military's tests for intellectual performance include problems related to number-series (calculation), verbal analogues and geometric figures. A combined score for the three tests is given as a single-digit standard nine (“stanine”) scale ranging from 1 (lowest) to 9. The scores are normally distributed with a mean of 5.0 and SD = 2.00. A stanine score of 5 corresponds to 100 points on the intelligence quotient (IQ) scale (WAIS), with an increment/decrement of 7.5 IQ points for each stanine unit deviating from 5. Our study included 493,615 men tested for intellectual performance at a conscription board between 1980 and 2009 at the age of 18. We divided the study period into six five-year periods and used one-way between-group analysis (Welsh) with Tukey post hoc tests to examine differences in mean stanine score of intellectual performance across the periods. P-value Results Mean stanine scores of intellectual performances were statistically significant different between the periods. The score increased from 4.93 (SD = 1.8) in 1980–84 to 5.12 (SD = 1.8) in 1985–89 and peaked at 5.29 (SD = 1.9) in 1990–94. Thereafter, the mean stanine score fell to 5.13 (SD = 1.8) in the period 2000–04 and to 4.97 (SD = 1.7) in 2005–09. When referenced to the IQ scale, our results show that men tested in 1990–94 scored on average 2.7 points higher than those tested in 1980–84. Men tested in 2005–09 scored on average 2.4 IQ-points lower than those of the peak period (1990–94), but still 0.3 IQ-points higher than those who were tested in the first period. Conclusion We observed a significant gain in intellectual performance among 18-year-old men between 1980 and 1994, thereafter a similar and significant loss until 2009.

The Associations Between Math Achievement and Perceived Relationships in School Among High Intelligent Versus Average Adolescents

ABSTRACTResearch regarding highly intelligent adolescents in Scandinavia is scarce. We know little about highly intelligent adolescents’ experiences with the school-system and how they experience their social relationships and relationships with their teachers. We used survey and test data from approximately 16,000 respondents from the Norwegian Armed Forces to investigate reported math grades and their potential associations with gender, teacher relations, and social relations with peers. Furthermore, we explored whether intelligence moderated these associations. Intelligence and teacher relations were positively associated with math grades, social relations were negatively associated with math grades, and the association was more negative for students with higher intelligence scores. The association with gender was moderated by intelligence. Among the students with higher intelligence scores, girls reported higher math scores than boys. Intelligence did not moderate the association between teacher relations and math scores, indicating that the teacher relationship is the same across all levels of intelligence.

Norwegian "Digital Border Defense" and Competence for the Unforeseen: A Grounded Theory Approach.

Strategic Competence Leadership (SCL) is a tool meant to ensure that the Norwegian Armed Forces Cyber Defence (NAFCD) has the necessary expertise to cope with current and future unforeseen events. This is necessary in order to develop a better digital border defense against digital threats from different state or non-state actors. Unforeseen cyber incidents include for instance “zero-days” attacks and similar severe threats. The goal of the SCL in the NAFCD is the development of a reliable “Cyber Resilience.” In the present study, we examine how the concept of SCL is understood and carried out on the different leadership and managerial levels in the NAFCD. Our research problem was how well prepared the NAFCD is for SCL and competence development for future competence needs, especially in relation to unforeseen events? Semi-structured interviews and document analyses of governance documents were used in the present study. The Strategic Didactic Model for the Unforeseen was used to construct nine research questions that were then given to the participants. The nine questions were sorted under three categories: organizational structures, competence development and needs, and plans, handling and communication. Fourteen leaders at different levels in the NAFCD participated in the study. Our main finding was that high-level (n = 4) and low-level (n = 10) participants differed in their views on SCL. As for unforeseen events, both levels shared the opinion that the NAFCD can cope with a low level of didactical degrees of the unforeseen (the degree to which the management has the competence to facilitate for adequate exercises for the different hierarchical levels in the organization, i.e., sudden unknown cyber-attacks). However, no common understanding of the term SCL was found among the participants. Interaction was interpreted to be very important to the participants, and they used professional networks to a high degree. In addition, unofficial lines of communication were very frequently used in relation to human resource exchange and development. By creating a common understanding within the NAFCD regarding the concept of SCL, it will be possible to improve the Norwegian digital border defense against unforeseen events.

Assessment of intake of copper and lead by sheep grazing on a shooting range for small arms: a case study.

The Norwegian Armed Forces' shooting ranges contain contamination by metals such as lead (Pb) and copper (Cu) and are often used as grazing pastures for livestock. To determine whether the sheep were at risk from grazing at a shooting range in Nord-Trøndelag (the Leksdalen shooting field), a study was conducted wherein the aim was to determine the amount of soil the sheep were eating, the accumulation of Cu and Pb in the livers of lambs grazing on the shooting ranges, and the accumulation of Pb and Cu in the grass. The grazing behavior of the sheep was mapped using GPS tracking and wildlife cameras. Soil, grass, feces, and liver samples were collected. All the samples were analyzed for Pb, Cu, and molybdenum (Mo), and soil and feces were also analyzed for titanium (Ti). Mean concentrations in grass, soil, feces, and liver was 41-7189, 1.3-29, 4-5, and 0.3mg/kg Pb, respectively, and 42-580, 4.2-11.9, 19-23, and 273mg/kg Cu, respectively. The soil ingestion rate was calculated using Ti in feces and soil. From these results, the theoretical dose of Cu and Pb ingested by grazing sheep was calculated. The soil ingestion rate was found to be 0.1-0.4%, significantly lower than the soil ingestion rate of 5-30% usually used for sheep. Little or no accumulation of Cu and Pb in the grass was found. There was no difference between the metal concentrations in the washed and unwashed grass. According to the calculated dose, the sheep were at little or no risk of acute or chronic Pb and Cu poisoning from grazing on the Leksdalen shooting range. The analysis of liver samples showed that lambs grazing on the shooting range did not have higher levels of Cu or Pb than lambs grazing elsewhere. None of the lambs had concentrations of Cu or Pb in their livers indicating poisoning.

Estimating output mix effectiveness: An applied scenario approach for the Armed Forces

The ability of public sector policy makers to prioritize has a huge impact on the effectiveness of public service provision. Public services can take the form of final outputs demanded by consumers or of intermediate outputs contributing to a process of realizing the higher goals of society. In doing the right things, policy makers choose a mix of intermediate outputs maximizing their preference value for public service outcomes, while managers do things right when responsible for producing outputs efficiently. This distinction enables us to pinpoint important reasons for inefficiencies in the provision of public services. Taking advantage of the method of scenario based planning, a model for measuring effectiveness is developed for situations where traditional methods such as two-stage regressions fail due to long time lags and lack of variation in the variables. Scenarios take the role of outcomes in the modeling of outcome mapping functions, where each scenario represents a set of environmental variables. The model is specified for the provision of defense outcomes, where the lag between changes in input and impacts on outcomes are substantial. From a sample of 12 combat units in the Norwegian Armed Forces, producing different outputs, we find that inefficiencies in output mix can explain most of the changes in overall effectiveness over a four-year period of time.

On Growing Operating Costs in the Armed Forces

Operating costs per unit of input or output are often claimed to grow faster in defence than elsewhere in the economy. In this paper, we outline several possible reasons as to why operating costs increase at higher rates in defence, including differences in the input factor mix and productivity growth, the technological complexity required to maintain the relative effect of weapon systems and a gradual reduction in the number of units and activity. We investigate whether operating costs grow at a faster rate than elsewhere in the economy, by estimating growth in real output unit costs in the Norwegian Armed Forces for the period 1994–2013, using activity as a measure of output. We find no increase beyond general inflation in structural (fixed) costs, whereas activity-based (variable) costs per unit of activity increase significantly.

Soldiers and ‘respect’ in complex conflicts: an Afghan case

This paper discusses the meaning of ‘respect’ in complex conflicts and aims to be a contribution to thinking about ethics in war along with the Just War tradition. The point of departure is the increased focus on soldiers as moral decision-makers in war, illustrated by the introduction of core values in the Norwegian Armed Forces. ‘Respect’ is one of these core values. However, it is not clear how we should understand ‘respect’ in this kind of context. I use a case where a group of Norwegian soldiers in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) sought the cooperation of a group of mujahedeen to solve the military mission of establishing security. As confidence between the parties grew, the soldiers became horrified witnesses to a practice of bacha bazi, where a young boy is dressed up for entertainment and sexually abused. My discussion of different perspectives of ‘respect’ in this specific context shows the importance of acknowledging the multitude of moral stakes in a moral decision-process instead of closing the eyes for a moral problem.

Responsibility in Complex Conflicts: An Afghan Case

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses soldiers’ moral responsibility in today’s complex conflicts. The point of departure is the increased focus on soldiers as moral decision-makers in war, illustrated by the introduction of core values in the Norwegian Armed Forces. Responsibility is one of these core values, but it is not clear exactly how we should understand responsibility. I use a case where a group of Norwegian soldiers in the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) sought the cooperation of a group of mujahedeen to solve the military mission of establishing security. As confidence between the parties grew, the soldiers became horrified witnesses to a practice of bacha bazi, where a young boy is dressed up for entertainment and sexual abuse. This situation gives reason to question the limits of role responsibility, the status of soldiers’ legitimacy, and the challenges of making morally sound judgments in a multicultural context. The discussion demonstrates that, even if there are restrictions on the soldiers’ freedom to act, a responsibility reaching beyond or extending their role should be recognized as part of the moral reality of modern soldiers.

Predicting Basic Military Performance for Conscripts in the Norwegian Armed Forces

The Norwegian Armed Forces have made major changes to the enlistment and selection system for conscripts in recent years. In this article, the predictive validity of various selection criteria for military performance is examined. The sample consisted of 3,276 conscripts, of whom 18% were female. The predictors in the analysis were general mental ability, self-perceived physical fitness, social and life skills, self-perceived military fit, tested physical fitness and officer-rated suitability. Military performance was assessed by an officer toward the end of the basic 1-year military service. Bivariate correlations between the predictors and military performance were studied for men and women separately. The best predictors were tested physical fitness for men and officer-rated suitability for women. A stepwise hierarchical moderated multiple regression analysis was conducted. A small but significant part of the variance was explained by the model. Both self-reported variables and other predictors made a small, but significant contribution to improving the model. The results indicated that the 2-step selection process was valid for predicting military performance for both men and women.

Interaction between Parental Education and Twin Correlations for Cognitive Ability in a Norwegian Conscript Sample.

We examine a sample of Norwegian twin conscripts for evidence of an interaction between parental education and the heritability of general cognitive ability (GA). Ability scores were obtained on 1706 pairs of twins who were conscripted into the Norwegian Armed Forces between 1931and 1960. Education scores were available for mothers and fathers; the majority of the parents had less than a high school education. GA scores were heteroscadistic with respect to mid-parent education, with reduced variability at higher levels of education. Both MZ and DZ twin correlations for GA were linearly and negatively related to mid-parent education, DZ twins substantially more so. When the model was extended to an ACE model consisting of standardized positive ACE variance components, the modification appeared to disappear. Further analysis revealed that this occurred because the steep decline of DZ twin correlations with increasing mid-parent education resulted in a violation of the classical twin model for much of the parameter space. Other phenomena that might result in large declines in DZ twin correlations are considered, along with implications for other studies of socioeconomic interactions with the heritability of GA in European samples.