Norwegian Armed Forces Research Articles

Health Literacy and Health-Related Habits among Conscripts in the Norwegian Armed Forces-A Cross-Sectional Survey.

Although health information is widely available to the Norwegian population a lack of health literacy is still common and considered a public health challenge. However, there is limited information on the health literacy of the adolescent population in Norway. The purpose of this pilot study was to assess health literacy and self-reported health habits among soldiers in basic military training, both in field, camp, and home settings. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate which health habits characterize soldiers with inadequate health literacy. An electronic questionnaire was sent out to conscripts who completed first-time military service in 2022 and was answered by 2,225 conscripts. Descriptive statistics were performed using cross-tabulations, correlations, and chi-squared tests. The survey is part of an internal quality study of the Norwegian Armed Forces routines. It is approved by the Norwegian Armed Forces joint medical services. In the study population, 43% scored inadequate health literacy on the European Health Literacy Survey Questionnaire-Q12 (HLS-Q12), and 57% scored adequate health literacy. We found a significant difference between those having inadequate and adequate HLS-Q12 scores in categories of self-rated health habits of oral health and diet with lower scores in the inadequate score group. The use of tobacco during field exercise in camp and at home was higher in the group of conscripts with adequate health literacy scores. The conscripts generally reported a lower standard of health habits during field exercises with significantly less brushing and flossing, higher use of tobacco products and higher consumption of energy drinks and sugary snacks compared to reported habits in camp and at home. The results from our study suggest that the conscripts in the Norwegian Armed Forces have a lower health literacy than the general population, and this is reflected in reported higher frequency of unhealthy habits in service settings than at home. The Armed Forces have an opportunity to take responsibility to optimize the health skills of their soldiers and to encourage them to make informed decisions about their own health. Improved adaptation to the national recommendations regarding nutrition, tobacco use, and oral health are areas having the potential to greatly improve the overall health habits of conscripts.

Large-Scale Item-Level Analysis of the Figural Matrices Test in the Norwegian Armed Forces: Examining Measurement Precision and Sex Bias.

Figural matrices tests are common in intelligence research and have been used to draw conclusions regarding secular changes in intelligence. However, their measurement properties have seldom been evaluated with large samples that include both sexes. Using data from the Norwegian Armed Forces, we study the measurement properties of a test used for selection in military recruitment. Item-level data were available from 113,671 Norwegian adolescents (32% female) tested between the years 2011 and 2017. Utilizing item response theory (IRT), we characterize the measurement properties of the test in terms of difficulty, discrimination, precision, and measurement invariance between males and females. We estimate sex differences in the mean and variance of the latent variable and evaluate the impact of violations to measurement invariance on the estimated distribution parameters. The results show that unidimensional IRT models fit well in all groups and years. There is little difference in precision and test difficulty between males and females, with precision that is generally poor on the upper part of the scale. In the sample, male latent proficiency is estimated to be slightly higher on average, with higher variance. Adjusting for measurement invariance generally reduces the sex differences but does not eliminate them. We conclude that previous studies using the Norwegian GMA data must be interpreted with more caution but that the test should measure males and females equally fairly.

Problematic anger among military personnel after combat deployment: prevalence and risk factors

BackgroundProblematic anger, characterized by excessive frequency, intensity, and duration of anger which causes substantial emotional distress and functional interference, poses a marked challenge in military populations. Despite its importance, research on this topic is limited. This study contributes to the literature by exploring problematic anger in a large sample of Norwegian military personnel who served in NATO missions in Afghanistan.MethodsAll Norwegian military personnel who deployed to Afghanistan between 2001 and 2020 were sent a link to a cross-sectional web-based survey by the Joint Medical Services of the Norwegian Armed Forces in 2020. A total of 6205 individuals (response rate: 67.7%) participated. The cross-sectional survey assessed problematic anger, mental and physical health, war zone stressor exposure, and quality of life.ResultsOverall, 8.4% of participants reported problematic anger. Mental health disorders, deployment-related shame and guilt, chronic pain, and challenges with the military-to-civilian transition were independently associated with problematic anger. Both staying in service and maintaining a part-time connection with the military as a reservist mitigated the risk of problematic anger after deployment, compared to complete separation from military service.ConclusionFindings demonstrate a sizeable prevalence of problematic anger among veterans of combat deployments. Given the associations between problematic anger and mental health disorders, chronic pain, and transition challenges, interventions designed to mitigate problematic anger need to be multi-faceted, including the possibility of maintaining an ongoing connection to military service. By reducing the risk of problematic anger, occupational, interpersonal and health outcomes may be improved for service members. Future research should examine the impact of problematic anger on adjustment over time, prevention strategies, and problematic anger in other high-risk occupations.

Freezing cold injuries among soldiers in the Norwegian Armed Forces – A cross sectional study

ABSTRACT Introduction: Freezing cold injuries (FCI) are a common risk in extreme cold weather warfare operations. The Norwegian Armed Forces (NAF) have the expertise and capabilities in education and training for warfighting capabilities in the Arctic. Nevertheless, a substantial number of Norwegian soldiers sustain freezing cold injuries annually. The aim of this study was to describe the FCI in the NAF, the associated risk factors and clinical associations. Methodology: The subjects for the study were soldiers registered with FCI in the Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry (NAFHR) between January 1st 2004–July1st 2021. The soldiers answered a questionnaire regarding background, activities at the time of injury, description of the FCI, risk factors, medical treatment and any sequelae from their FCI. Results: FCI in the NAF were most frequently reported among young conscripts (mean20.5 years). Hands and feet are most often injured (90.9%). Only a minority (10.4%) received medical treatment. The majority (72.2%) report sequelae. Extreme weather conditions was the most important risk factor (62.5%). Conclusions: Most soldiers had the knowledge to avoid FCI, but they were injured anyway. It is concerning that only one in 10 injured soldiers received medical treatment after diagnosed with FCI, increasing the risk of FCI sequelae.

Shooter ready? Integrating mental skills training in an advanced sniper course.

Performance psychology has increased in usage and popularity; however, we contend that within the elite spheres of the military, there is a need for research and development to fit the context and environment. In this study, we describe an explorative case study on the integration of mental skill training techniques to an advanced sniper course in the Norwegian Armed Forces. We evaluate the impact through triangulation and examine results on the course, perceptions of the participants, and observations from the instructors. In addition, we conducted a 1-year follow-up to get participants' experience of translating the skills beyond the course. The results show that the mental skill training package influenced both results and performance in a positive manner; however, as a novel field, further research is warranted to establish a best practice to enhance performance for elite military forces.

The malleability of competitive preferences

Men are more competitive than women, but we do not know how stable competitive preferences are. We conduct a pre-registered data collection in the Norwegian Armed Forces, a traditionally male environment, using survey measures of competitiveness that are known to be correlated with competitive behavior in the lab. We find that there is selection into the environment but that there is still a gender difference at baseline. We further find that the competitive preferences become stronger for both women and men over a period of eight weeks. The changes are large enough to eliminate the initial gender gap if only women had been exposed to the setting.

Training videos to prevent cold weather injuries

ABSTRACT Cold weather injuries (CWIs) are a challenge during military training, exercises and operations in Arctic conditions. Soldier performance in these challenging conditions depends on protective equipment, knowledge, personal experience, routines, and leadership. Despite the Norwegian Armed Forces’ goal of zero freezing cold injuries (FCIs), there has been a persistently high incidence of FCIs among the younger soldiers with an average of 120–150 new FCIs recorded each year. Therefore, an expert working group with representatives from medical, defence and research background was established in 2020. Their task was to develop a communication package to help prevent CWIs among military personnel. Training videos and an updated and improved official website were created with a focus on practical recommendations and advice to prevent CWIs and especially FCIs. Risks, prevention and symptoms of FCIs were emphasised. The main goal of the training videos was to supplement current teaching on guidance for CWI prevention in CWOs to prevent FCIs, but following the advice may prevent non-freezing cold injuries (NFCIs) and hypothermia. This informative paper describes the background, working methods and possible implications of the training videos, which may be a potential way forward to improve cold weather training and operations.

INSTITUTE OF MILITARY OMBUDSMAN IN NORWAY: NOVELS IN CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL REGULATION

The purpose of the research. In state mechanism of some foreign countries, there is an independent organ of the Ombudsman for the Armed Forces (the so-called military ombudsman), which can be described as a link between the army and society. The military ombudsman is to perform the function of an intermediary (mediator) in military-civil relations, on the one hand, and to serve as an institutional guarantee of the observance of military personnel’s rights and interests, as well as rights and freedoms of the persons who are subjects to military conscription, on the other hand. This article performs the analysis of the legal status, tasks and activities of the Parliamentary Committee of the Ombudsman for the Armed Forces of Norway, which collectively performs the function of the military ombudsman in this country. The article is written on the basis of an analysis of the Law on the Parliamentary Committee for the Armed Forces in Norway in 2021, which replaced the Instructions for this body adopted in 1952. The authors pay special attention to novelties in regulating the status and functioning of this quasi-parliamentary structure. The results. With the adoption of special legislation on the activities of the military ombudsman in Norway, its status was also increased: if earlier its activities were regulated by a subordinate normative act, now-by the act of higher legal force. The current law expands the powers of the Parliamentary Committee for the Norwegian Armed Forces to control the legality of the activities of the military administration, increases the number of the performed functions, first of all related to international cooperation in the relevant field, and makes an attempt to more clearly distinguish between the jurisdiction of parliamentary military and civilian ombudsmen. The existence of a specialized institution of the parliamentary military ombudsman in Norway provides a higher level of control over the protection of the rights and interests of military personnel, and also contributes to a more competent approach to considering issues related to military personnel.

Women, Peace, and Security Norms as seen by Norwegian Male Officers

This article explores how male officers in the Norwegian Armed Forces (NAF) understand the relevance of the global Women, Peace, and Security (WPS) norms in their conceptualizations of security work. The study is based on in-depth interviews with 13 Norwegian male officers, draws on a discourse theoretical framework, and feeds into scholarly discussions on security, gender, and diversity. The findings indicate that the WPS norms are seen primarily as tools for improving military overseas operations, and further, that gender equality is seen as a ‘natural’ part of Norwegian identity, including the professional identities of military personnel in the NAF. WPS norms are therefore perceived as less relevant at home than abroad. We argue that this is because the attitudes toward gender issues that the officers regard as ‘natural’ interact with other gender roles and cultures in overseas operations, and therefore pertain to distant ‘others’ more than to the ‘self ’.

Introducing a new method to record injuries during military training: a prospective study among 296 young Norwegian conscripts

IntroductionMost epidemiological studies in the field of military medicine have been based on data from medical records and registries. The aims of this study were to test a self-reporting injury...

Decomposing the effect of hardiness in military leadership selection and the mediating role of self-efficacy beliefs

ABSTRACT Psychological hardiness is a set of personality characteristics that is linked to better health, performance, and leadership in demanding environments. Research indicates that candidates who score high on hardiness have an advantage during military leadership selection. In this study, we deconstruct the effect of hardiness into three separate measures of leadership performance: interview performance, field performance, and the probability of voluntary withdrawal from a challenging field exercise. Additionally, we hypothesize that the dispositional effect of hardiness is partly due to an indirect effect of contextual self-efficacy beliefs regarding military leadership ability. We test our hypotheses in a sample of candidates seeking admission to officer training in the Norwegian Armed Forces during a three-week selection process. The results confirm that hardiness was associated with successful admission and showed that hardy candidates scored somewhat higher on the interview and field exercises and were notably less likely to drop out of the field exercise. Using generalized structural equation modeling and mediation analysis, we find that the effect is partly mediated by self-efficacy beliefs, but the direct effect of hardiness is more pronounced than the indirect effect of self-efficacy. Overall, the results add to the growing body of hardiness as a predictor of military leadership performance and shows that this advantage is partly, but not primarily associated with contextual self-efficacy beliefs.

Command and Control in a Fifth Generation Air Force: Coordination Requirements of Air Operations with F-35 and the Command and Control-System of the Norwegian Armed Forces

This article discusses the ways in which the F-35 Lightning aircraft might affect the command and control (C2) of the Royal Norwegian Air Force. It emphasises the importance of coordination answering questions regarding the effect of the implementation of the F-35 on interdependencies with other capabilities. This foundation is further used to discuss possible implications for elements central to C2 such as procedures, personnel, and communication and information systems. Based on the capabilities of the F-35 system, we find a development of interdependencies across domains and C2 levels in the Norwegian armed forces; the complexity of these interdependencies, influenced both by the execution of air operations and by environmental contingencies, means that the organisation needs to be flexible in its use of coordination mechanisms. We find that interdependence, and the coordination necessary if it is to be successful, have implications for command and control of air operations involving F-35 aircraft. We suggest the organisation should adopt a more active use of both hierarchical and horizontal structures to accommodate the sharing of knowledge and information across domains and C2 levels. Procedures need to include methods and systems for the delegation of authority, and personnel require knowledge of interdependencies and multi-domain operations. Finally, communication and information systems need to be available, interoperable, and robust.

High Unemployment and the Armed Forces: The Costs and Benefits of Recruiting Military Personnel in Norway

ABSTRACT The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the subsequent non-pharmaceutical interventions by governments to reduce the transmission of the coronavirus, and adjusted consumer behaviors have resulted in high unemployment rates worldwide. In this paper, we explore whether the Norwegian Armed Forces can exploit this period of high unemployment to strengthen security and defense in Norway while increasing the job opportunities for young individuals in a difficult labor market. Before the pandemic, the Norwegian government had planned to gradually increase the number of personnel in the armed forces. Hence, an expedited recruitment strategy may improve welfare. We calculate the costs and benefits to Norwegian society of a strategy that exploits the hike in unemployment rates to recruit new personnel to the armed forces at a faster rate. We find that the expedited recruitment strategy will likely provide net benefits to society if the unemployed have a fair chance of being employed. However, we stress that there must be a real need for higher defense spending, it is difficult to estimate the economic value of defense production, and there may be a trade-off between the goals of labor market policies and those of defense policies.

Candidate Personality Traits Associated with Ratings in a Military Officer Selection Setting

While studies of the relationship between applicant personality and selection assessment ratings are widespread within personnel psychology, studies on military samples are scarcer. The current study aimed to investigate the associations between the Five-Factor Model of personality and ratings in (1) a military selection interview and (2) a field selection exercise simulating a war-like scenario. Research participants were candidates attending a selection program for military officer schools in the Norwegian Armed Forces (<em>N</em> = 901). The study used the NEO-PI-3 for measuring personality, and a shorter military personality measure (NMPI) was added for purposes of convergent test validation. Military selection officers rated candidates based on mission command leadership competencies. After controlling for sex, age, and general mental ability, results demonstrated small predictive effects of extraversion (+) and openness (–) toward mean competency ratings in both the interview and the field selection exercise. Furthermore, the selection officers used somewhat global evaluations of candidates in their ratings due to high correlations between competencies. Based on the findings, we suggest that personality testing may be useful in the selection process and contribute to a more nuanced rating of competencies.

Yersinia enterocolitica: A Follow-up of the Outbreak in the Norwegian Armed Forces in 2014.

In the spring of 2014, there was an outbreak of Yersinia enterocolitica (YE) gastroenteritis in four Norwegian military camps-the largest outbreak ever reported in Norway. YE is usually transmitted via food, and the gastrointestinal disease caused by the bacterium is considered a public health problem in several countries. Common symptoms of YE gastroenteritis are abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Post-infectious complications can occur after YE gastroenteritis, the most common of which are erythema nodosum and reactive arthritis. Based on self-reported data, we describe the duration of illness, the duration of any absence from service, and the incidence of symptoms of post-infectious complications in two groups of servicepeople: one diagnosed with YE gastroenteritis and the other with an unspecified acute infectious gastroenteritis. The Norwegian Armed Forces Health Register (NAFHR) is a central health register that contains data from conscripts and from military and civilian personnel in the Norwegian Armed Forces. In this study, we identified all individuals with a diagnosis of YE gastroenteritis in the NAFHR in the period from January 1 to June 30, 2014 (n = 128) as well as all those with a diagnosis of an unspecified acute infectious gastroenteritis in the same period (n = 323) to participate as controls. In October 2018, a link to an internet-based questionnaire was distributed by e-mail to all identified individuals. The questionnaires collected data on the duration of illness, the duration of absence from service, and the incidence of symptoms of post-infectious complications. Of all those who received the questionnaire, 72 (59%) were included in the YE group and 117 people (36%) were included in the control group. Half of those in the YE group were ill for more than 13 days, while almost all (90%) of those in the control group recovered after 1 week. There were no differences between the groups in the incidence of symptoms of post-infectious complications during the 6 weeks after recovery. There was a significantly larger proportion of officers than conscripts in the YE group who reported symptoms of post-infectious complications. None of the respondents reported symptoms of post-infectious complications in the 6 months after the termination of military service. One strength of this study is that we were able to investigate a large outbreak of YE gastroenteritis in a group of individuals with good underlying health. Weaknesses are the low response rate, especially in the control group, and the fact that we sent out the questionnaire >4 years after the acute gastroenteritis occurred. YE gastroenteritis among personnel in the Norwegian Armed Forces was associated with a significantly longer duration of illness and a longer duration of absence from service than that resulting from an unspecified acute infectious gastroenteritis. However, YE gastroenteritis was not associated with more symptoms of post-infectious complications.

The psychometric properties and norm data of the Norwegian military personality inventory (NMPI).

The five-factor structure is a well-established model for personality. The five traits covary with job-performance and work-relevant outcomes. The practical administration of existing big-five measurement scales is, however, somewhat limited, in a Norwegian setting, as existing scales are impractically large or have unknown psychometric properties. Because of this, a new brief Norwegian personality assessment tool has been developed by the Norwegian Armed Forces. This study aims to uncover the psychometric properties of the 50-item Norwegian military personality inventory (NMPI-50) and establish norm data for practical use. The inventory was administered to the 2002 cohort of Norwegian 17-year olds (N=54,355), and analyzed with factor analysis, graded response models and tests of gender invariance. The five scales of the NMPI-50 showed satisfactory internal consistency, yielded high information across a broad range of the five traits, and conformed to a bi-factor structure with one general factor and five specific factors. The general factor was positively associated with motivation for military service, indicating some measurement bias. The openness scale is less clearly psychometrically defined, compared to the other scales, and both extroversion and openness show some evidence of multidimensionality. The scales also showed scalar invariance between genders except for the openness scale. Overall, the results support the use of NMPI-50 in personnel assessment and research.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 prevalence in 1170 asymptomatic Norwegian conscripts.

BackgroundAccurate estimates of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection in different population groups are important for the health authorities. In Norway, public infection control measures have successfully curbed the pandemic. However, military training and service are incompatible with these measures; therefore extended infection control measures were implemented in the Norwegian Armed Forces. We aimed to describe these measures, discuss their value, and investigate the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) prevalence and seroprevalence of SARS‐CoV‐2, as well as changes in antibody titer levels over the 6‐week military training period in a young, asymptomatic population of conscripts.MethodsIn April 2020, 1170 healthy conscripts (median age 20 years) enrolled in military training. Extended infection control measures included a pre‐enrollment telephone interview, self‐imposed quarantine, questionnaires, and serial SARS‐CoV‐2 testing. At enrollment, questionnaires were used to collect information on symptoms, and SARS‐CoV‐2 rapid antibody testing was conducted. Serial SARS‐CoV‐2 PCR and serology testing were used to estimate the prevalence of confirmed SARS‐CoV‐2 and monitor titer levels at enrollment, and 3 and 6 weeks thereafter.ResultsAt enrollment, only 0.2% of conscripts were SARS‐CoV‐2 PCR‐positive, and seroprevalence was 0.6%. Serological titer levels increased nearly 5‐fold over the 6‐week observation period. Eighteen conscripts reported mild respiratory symptoms during the 2 weeks prior to enrollment (all were PCR‐negative; one was serology‐positive), whereas 17 conscripts reported respiratory symptoms and nine had fever at enrollment (all were PCR‐ and serology‐negative).ConclusionsThe prevalence of SARS‐CoV‐2 was less than 1% in our sample of healthy Norwegian conscripts. Testing of asymptomatic conscripts seems of no value in times of low COVID‐19 prevalence. SARS‐CoV‐2 antibody titer levels increased substantially over time in conscripts with mild symptoms.

Preparedness and Multiagency Collaboration—Lessons Learned from a Case Study in the Norwegian Armed Forces

The objective of this study is to investigate the structure for learning and the learning outcomes from a paper exercise based on multiagency collaboration, and point to potential benefits for crisis leadership and management in civil organizations. The current study was conducted by participant observation in one exercise and a questionnaire was handed out in the following exercise to measure outcomes. Social interaction and concurrent learning are used as the theoretical foundation in the current study. The exercise can be used as an input for multiagency collaboration when linked to the strategic and operative context. The Norwegian Armed Forces operate from a leadership perspective of intention-based leadership. The organization has also developed a pedagogical platform that guides learning activities. In a complex world, we aim at finding training areas that can prepare the cadets for scenarios that also heavily involve the unforeseen. Improvisation is seen as important for military leaders and the exercise provides a sound arena for this purpose. We have seen that even for a table exercise, important lessons can be learned. The current study makes suggestions as well as improvements that could be performed based on the lessons learned for both the Norwegian Armed Forces as well as for other organizations that find the experiences interesting. The article identified five management principles for interaction under unforeseen conditions: (1) develop a pedagogical view for the organization, (2) facilitate and train using processes for complementary process development, (3) develop precise and common language, (4) train the organization in concurrent learning, (5) develop tolerance and mutual respect.

Implementation of Flipped Classroom and PBL at the Norwegian Defense University College

As a result of an extensive educational reform in the Norwegian armed forces (NAF), digital learning is introduced across the military system. Following a new defense educational strategy, one of the measures implemented at the Norwegian Defense University College (NDUC) is Problem Based Learning (PBL) and Flipped classroom. Flipped classroom is one of the most well-known buzz words in education for the last 10 years at learning institutions all over the world. What does it really mean to implement flipped classroom as part of an educational strategy? Is putting PowerPoint presentations in the LMS together with digital copies of the syllabus enough to claim that flipped classroom is implemented? Is it really something totally new and is it only suitable for certain subjects? And how can PBL together with flipped classroom lay the ground for learning activities that results in deeper learning? This paper gives an overview of what a flipped classroom concept combined with PBL can look like, why it matters and how it is meant to be implemented as an educational strategy. Furthermore, both pros, cons, risks, and common misunderstandings are discussed and compared to traditional learning methods used at NDUC and still existing in many schools and universities around the world. At the end, the new educational strategy based on Flipped classroom and PBL are discussed and lessons learnt from the rebuilding of a Master of Military subject in Military Leadership (ML), based on PBL and a flipped classroom strategy is highlighted.

The Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry conscription board health examinations 1968-2018.

Aim: The aim of the study is to encourage further research initiatives and collaborations based on Norwegian Armed Forces Health Registry (NAFHR) data by presenting basic information on the data contained therein. Methods: We describe how conscription board health examinations (CBHEs) are carried out, how results are recorded in the NAFHR, and the completeness of NAFHR data that are electronically available for research purposes. Results: In December 2018, the NAFHR contained data on nearly 1.5 million Norwegian citizens (95% men) who attended CBHE in 1968-2018 at the age of 17-19 years. The percentage of persons included from each birth cohort has varied as the Armed Forces' personnel requirements and filing procedures have changed, increasing from 73% of eligible men born in 1950 to 95% of eligible men born in 1960-1991. In 2010 a preselection of candidates was implemented wherefore less than half of men born in 1992-2000 are registered in the NAFHR. Information on aerobic fitness, cognitive general ability, height and weight is registered for approximately 95% of individuals included in the NAFHR. The NAFHR contains more detailed health information for CBHEs that took place as from 1980, and information included from 2011 onwards is the most detailed. Unique, national personal identification numbers may be used to link the NAFHR to other health registries or data sources for public health research. Conclusions: The NAFHR contains CBHE data on the majority of Norwegian men and a substantial number of women born since 1950. NAFHR data represent a valuable resource for research collaborations.