Northwestern Provinces Research Articles

The Conundrum of Pak-Afghan Border: A Historical Perspective

The territory has remained a bone of contention between modern nation states. Pakistan and Afghanistan have also no exception from it. Pak-Afghan relations have been in turmoil since the day when Afghanistan refused to accept Pakistan as a country and voted against its newly independent neighbor in the United Nations. It all happened in lieu of that Afghanistan is of the view that the North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP), currently known as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KPK), Baluchistan and some areas of Punjab are the parts of Afghan territory. Afghanistan breached all the previous agreements made over the Durand Line calling it just an imaginary line. Based on this entire scenario, this research study analyzes the changing dynamics of Pak-Afghan relationships in different eras driven by different factors. It discusses the pre-colonial impacts on the relationship between the two countries, it also probes what happened right after 1947 and then highlights the impacts of 9/11 tragic events. Reviewing the existing literature and the opinions of different political scientists on this issue, this study discusses the historical background of Pak-Afghan borderland. Moreover, it also attempts to shed light upon the geostrategic importance of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the region so that the political decisions on the persisting issue are made in a way that they favor the interests of both the states. This paper also elucidates the literature available on the colonial legacy of the Durand Line.

Trade-driven black carbon climate forcing and environmental equality under China's west-east energy transmission

Given abundant energy and mineral resources in northwestern China, the west-east energy and mineral product transmission program play an increasingly important role in China's energy supply and consumption since the 2000s. Rapid growing energy and mineral products under this program might release increasing carbon emissions, causing climate and environmental consequences in northwestern China, which seems to be overlooked before. Here, a multiregional input-output analysis (MRIO) was conducted to investigate the temporal and spatial changes in black carbon (BC) emissions embodied in west-east energy and mineral product transmission from 2007 to 2012. Results were used to estimate BC's climate and environmental impact on China, focusing on northwestern China. The results show that BC emission flow patterns have been altered dramatically in China's domestic trade from 2007 through 2012. By 2012, 48%–77% of the consumption-based BC emissions from well-developed Beijing-Tianjin metropolises, East Coast, and South Coast regions were outsourced to other, primarily less-developed regions, of which northwestern China was the largest net BC emission outflow region at 48.8 Gg. The BC radiative forcing over China embodied in the west-east energy transmission was quantified using a compact Earth system model OSCAR. Model estimation shows that more than 30% of BC radiative forcing in northwestern China was related to the consumption from other regions across China. Central and eastern China were two significant contributors to the BC radiative forcing in northwestern China. Severe BC environmental inequality embodied in interprovincial trade was also identified in northwestern and central China provinces among 30 Chinese provinces. Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Xinjiang in northwestern China experienced the most prominent climate and environmental losses via trade with well-developed provinces. These results provide references to alleviate trade-related pollution and climate impacts and to promote BC environmental equality in China.

Variability of selected heavy metals in surface sediments and ecological risks in the Solwezi and Kifubwa Rivers, Northwestern province, Zambia

Understanding the variability of heavy metals in surface sediments and how they accumulate is important not only in ecology and biodiversity conservation but also in aquatic natural resources management. This study investigated the level of some heavy metal contaminants in the Kifubwa and Solwezi Rivers in the Northwestern Province of Zambia. We used an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) to determine the levels of heavy metals in the surface sediments. Six sites known to be associated with heavy metal anthropogenic activities were sampled. In these sites, six elements, namely Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn, were targeted and measured in surface sediments from these two rivers. The mean values of these elements in each river were determined. To understand the ecological risk related to heavy metal contamination, we calculated the contamination factor (CF), the contamination degree (CD), as well as the pollution load index (PLI) for each element at each site in each river. These indices showed little contamination in the surface sediments of these rivers. This, therefore, implies that there are few ecological risks posed by heavy metal pollution to the ecosystems of the Solwezi and Kifubwa Rivers from sediments. However, follow-up studies should be carried out to monitor the levels of heavy metals in the fauna and flora of these rivers. Additionally, a follow-up study for the determination of other heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury, cadmium, and nickel must be conducted.

Geo-epidemiological reporting and spatial clustering of the 10 most prevalent cancers in Iran.

Cancer is a problem of both global and local concern. We determined the geo-epidemiological and spatial distribution of the 10 most common cancers in Iran. We used the data of the Iranian Cancer Registry for the year 2014 analysing the prevalence of 112,131 registered cancer cases with the aim of detecting potential geographical underlying causes. The geographic distribution of cancers is reported as standardized incidence rates at the provincial level considering risk with respect to sex and age. A geographical information systems (GIS) approach based on Anselin Local Moran's index method was used to map clusters and spatial autocorrelation patterns. The mean age of the patients was 55.6 (±17.8) and 61.7 (±18.2) for females and males, respectively, in the database which showed 46.1% (n=51,665) of all cases to be female. Analysis of the spatial distribution of cancers showed significant differences among the different provinces. Stomach and breast cancers were the most prevalent cancers in men and females, respectively. The highest incidence rates of stomach cancer were found in Ardabil and Zanjan provinces, with 48.38 and 48.08 per 100,000 population, respectively, while Tehran and Yazd provinces had the highest incidences of breast cancer, 51.0 and 47.5 per 100,000 population, respectively. Strong clustering patterns for stomach and breast cancers were identified in the north-western provinces and in Semnan Province, respectively. These patterns indicate a diversity of geo-epidemiological contributing factors to cancer incidence in Iran.

Isolation, Characterization and Identification of Industrially Beneficial Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria from Goat Milk

Purpose: Goat’s milk is enriched with many nutrients and diverse lactic acid bacteria (LAB). This research was aimed at isolating and characterizing industrially beneficial probiotic lactic acid bacteria present in goat milk and to investigate their ability to produce lactic acid.Research Method: A total of 100 bacterial isolates were obtained from 20 fresh goat’s milk samples from Western and North Western provinces in Sri Lanka. These isolates were characterized based on their colony and cell morphologies, physiological and biochemical characteristics, tolerance to in-vitro gastro intestinal tract (GIT) conditions and industrial properties. Species level identification of the isolates was performed based on the obtained phenotypic properties according to the Bergey’s manual of systematic bacteriology.Findings: The selected eight probiotic LAB isolates did not produce hemolytic enzymes, therefore, could primarily consider as safe for live consumption. According to the phenotypic properties, the isolates were of Lactobacillus pentosus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Streptococcus bovis, Lactococcus lactis and Enterococcus faecium species. They were able to coagulate skimmed milk which was indicated by the decrease of fi nal pH (4.8-5.9), tolerate to high (45 °C) and low (15°C) temperatures, grow in different NaCl concentrations (2%, 4%, and 6.5%) and different pH levels (1.5-3.9). HPLC analysis revealed that, Lactobacillus pentosus (33 mg/L) and Streptococcus thermophiles (14mg/L) possessed the highest lactic acid production abilities.Research Limitations: The species level identification of the isolates should be continued employing genotypic methods. The safety of the isolates for live consumption should confirm with in-vivo methods.Originality/Value: The raw goat milk microbiota is considered as a good source of novel lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains that can be exploited for use as industrial starters and probiotics. Lactic acid produced by the microorganisms; specifically, lactic acid bacteria is an important commodity chemical having many numbers of applications. However, very less research work has been done on the characterization of beneficial lactic acid bacteria present in goat milk produced in Sri Lanka.

Agriculture extensification and associated socio-ecological trade-offs in smallholder farming systems of Zambia

ABSTRACT One of the main drivers of deforestation in Zambia is the expansion of agricultural land for increasing production areas and for shift cultivation due to poor crop management practices. Land expansion was also echoed by farmers in Northwestern province as they aim to increase yield via land expansion. It was therefore important to understand possible associated socio-ecological trade-offs in agricultural extensification and identify pathways to improve ecosystem services delivery and reduce trade-offs. We used the Tradeoff Analysis model for Multi-Dimensional (TOA-MD) and Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) to assess trade-offs in both current and future farming systems under extensification (CP) and sustainable agriculture intensification (SAI). Thirty-year simulations showed that agricultural extensification will lead to loss of soil organic carbon) and total soil nitrogen of about 23% and 22%, respectively leading to yield reductions of about 35% and increased poverty levels. However, SAI approach results showed that poverty can be reduced by about 20% for farmers with land holdings of 3 ha while those with 2 and 5 ha can be reduced by 10% and 5% respectively. The proposed SAI has potential to reduce poverty, maintain good current and future crop production, and potentially aid farmers to reduce opening new fields.

Spatial Distribution and Influencing Factors of Chinese Time-Honored Catering Brands in the Five Northwestern Provinces

The Chinese Time-honored Catering Brands (CTCBs) in the five northwestern provinces are the accumulation of culture in the northwest of China and have precious value. Their formation and development process have their own characteristics and rules. In order to clarify the spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors of CTCBs in these provinces, this study uses geolocated social media data (the data of the CTCBs’ directory, location, and per capita consumption level), and applies statistical analysis, kernel density analysis, standard deviational ellipse, and buffer analysis to analyze the spatial distribution characteristics and influencing factors of CTCBs in the five northwestern provinces. The results show that: (1) the spatial development intensity of CTCBs is relatively strong in their original place, and their spatial distribution is uneven. The overall distribution is in the northwest-southeast direction, with strong agglomeration, and tends to be scattered in the periphery of the agglomeration area. There are some areas with higher concentrations distributed in the form of patches. (2) The number and spatial distribution of old brands with different grades and tastes have different characteristics. (3) The spatial distribution pattern of CTCBs is formed under a variety of factors, such as historical and traditional culture, regional traffic conditions and urban development patterns, etc.

Isolation, molecular characterization and phylogeny of Naegleria species in water bodies of North-Western Province, Sri Lanka.

BackgroundThe inland freshwater bodies in the North-Western Province of Sri Lanka have ideal environmental conditions for the Naegleria species. Therefore, the presence and prevalence of Naegleria species in the water bodies of North-Western Province were determined by molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis in this study.MethodsA total of 104 water bodies were selected from Kurunegala and Puttalam districts in the North-Western Province of Sri Lanka. Mean turbidity, pH, and temperature were recorded in each water body from three selected site. Centrifuged samples were cultured on non-nutrient agar plates with Escherichia coli. Enflagellation test positive isolates were subjected to DNA extraction and polymerase chain reaction using genus and species-specific primers targeting the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) and Mp2CL5 gene. Phylogenetic analysis was performed using Bayesian and maximum likelihood (ML) methods.ResultsThe prevalence of Naegleria species and N. fowleri in the study area were 23.07% and 1.92%. The prevalence of Naegleria species and the physicochemical parameters of the water bodies showed no significant correlation. Bayesian analysis of the ITS region revealed the Naegleria Sri Lankan (SL) isolates 1, 3, and 4 in a single clade separated from the 2 and 5. Furthermore, Bayesian analysis identified isolates 2 and 5 in the same clade with Naegleria sp. samples and N. Philippinensis forming a sister clade. However, in the ML tree, all isolates were in the same clade with Naegleria sp. samples and N. Philippinensis.ConclusionsThe present study reports the first isolation of pathogenic N. fowleri from Sri Lanka. Based on Bayesian analysis, SL isolates 2 and 5 form a separate clade from 1, 3, and 4. However, in ML analysis, all isolates are grouped in one clade with Naegleria sp. samples and N. philippinensis. Further investigations are required to confirm these findings.

Household-Level Determinants of Participation in Forest Support Programmes in the Miombo Landscapes, Zambia

The need to protect forest resources from unsustainable, yet rational, human actions has attracted global attention. This is because smallholder dependence on forests can degrade forest resources and cause deforestation. While efforts to understand forest programmes and motivations to protect forests have increased in recent decades, there remains a limited understanding of household factors affecting participation in forest support programmes, especially in the context of high-pressure areas, such as the Miombo woodlands. This study was conducted in the North-Western, Copperbelt and Eastern Province of Zambia. In each province, we selected landscapes consisting of protected and non-protected forest areas. We administered structured interviews to 1123 households and used logistic regression to estimate determinants of participation. We found that better education, landholding size, increased share of forest income, cash crops and non-farm income, and access to forests and markets have a negative impact on participation in forest support programmes. Being located in landscapes with protected areas was positively associated with participation. We suggest that, in order to increase participation, forest programmes should focus on households with low levels of education, limited livelihood opportunities, and poor access to markets. Besides, programmes should provide incentives, including support for farm inputs and at the same time encourage reforestation and agroforestry methods.

Willingness of farmers to establish a renewable energy (solar and wind) cooperative in NW Turkey

This study was conducted to investigate farmers’ desire to benefit from renewable energy (solar and wind) in northwestern provinces in Turkey. The willingness of farmers to establish a renewable energy cooperative was also investigated in this study. The relationships between the socioeconomic characteristics of the farmers and their willingness to establish a renewable energy cooperative were analyzed with the aid of nonparametric tests. According to Mann–Whitney U-test, farmers’ age, frequency of visits to agricultural organizations, internet use to reach information, land size, and the province where they live were effective on farmers’ willingness to establish a renewable energy cooperative. Additionally, 91.34% of the participant farmers were worried about climate change, and 70.84% were willing to receive training about climate change. Of the participant farmers, 65.88% were willing to establish a renewable energy cooperative. Extension programs should be organized by policymakers about renewable energy cooperatives, and such programs will provide significant public benefits.

Analyzing climate change and its effects on drought and water scarcity (case study: Ardabil, Northwestern Province of Iran, Iran)

Drought is a phenomenon that annually affects agriculture, tourism, and other areas. In recent years, a lot of research has been done on climate change and drought in various ways, but in relation to this phenomenon has not been done with appropriate methods. For this purpose, in this study, drought analysis and its prediction using the climate model of atmospheric circulation for years to come in Ardabil were dealt with. The data used in this study are precipitation, sunshine, minimum temperature and maximum temperature in monthly and daily intervals for the period of 29 years from 1990 to 2018. According to the findings of the present study, in Ardabil station, very severe drought on a 12-month scale has been repeated 5 times and severe drought has been repeated 12 times in the statistical period under study. But on a 3-month scale, very severe drought occurred 3 times while severe drought occurred 8 times. On a 12-month scale, it shows a higher drought index but is less pronounced in severe and very severe drought during the 3-months’ period. According to the HadCM3 atmospheric circulation model and scenario (A2), the precipitation parameter was more than observed in comparison with observations in March, January, and November, and in the other months, it has been decreasing. Maximum temperature: In this scenario, the climatic parameter of the maximum produced temperature has increased in all the months relative to observation data, and in the winter months (December, January, and February) it does not show a significant change for the next 40 years. It is worth noting that the sunshine parameter does not reveal a satisfactory answer with positive accuracy.

Mining induced displacement and resettlement (MIDR): a case of Muzabula compound in Solwezi mining district Zambia

Liberalisation of the economy in the early 2000s by the Zambian government led to the privatisation of the State owned mining assets. Kansanshi Mine in Solwezi, North-western province of Zambia was sold to First Quantum. When the company started mining in 2004, some families in Muzabula compound that where in proposed mining area were displaced. Mining induced displacement and resettlement (MIDR) led to loss of socio-cultural, economic and environmental aspects of the displaced families thereby affecting their livelihood. Included was loss of land, common property resources, and disruption of social networks, loss of traditional authority and identity and destruction of forests and loss of access to the river. The objective of the research was to evaluate the impact of MIDR on the livelihood of the displaced community of Muzabula Compound. The conceptual and theoretical framework was based on the ‘Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction model’ that looks at impoverishment risk assessment of socio-cultural, economic and environmental aspect in its analysis that arise from displacement. Qualitative research methods were used to collect data through semi structured interviews with the community, mine representative and government officials. A total number of forty-seven participants took part in the interviews. Grounded theory was used for data analysis and interpretation. Displacement took place in two phases, in 2004 at the beginning of mining and in 2015 during the construction of the smelter road. During the first phase, people were compensated in form of money at $3190 (US Dollars) per 50 x 50 metres of land. The amount included houses, fruit trees, fields and whatever was on the land. The second phase, compensation was in form of good concrete houses better than the mad houses demolished and help in farming inputs and skills. The displaced families who were subsistence farmers improved their produce. The first displacement resulted in increased risks of impoverishment for the displaced due to loss of livelihood as the displaced families were not involved in the planning. The second displacement was properly planned and improved the displaced families’ livelihood. Planning must include all stakeholders who are the community, the government, Civil Society like the Church, Non-Governmental Organisations working in the community and the Mining Company officials. The 96 interests of the community to be displaced must be considered as a first priority. The paper concludes that Government must adhere to policies that govern mining displacement and resettlement to reduce on loss of livelihood for the displaced. In the first displacement this was not considered as the displaced families were not engaged in any planning meetings and were just informed by the government officials and traditional leadership that they will be displaced and compensated.

An Investigation into the Challenges Encountered by the University of Zambia in the Implementation of Extension Education: A Case of North Western Province

The Extra Mural Studies Department (now known as Extension Studies Section) was established in order to maintain the university links with the community as well as serve as a conduit through which university knowledge and university ways of thought can be transmitted to people in their locality. This research therefore, was an undertaking to identify challenges encountered in the implementation of University Extension Education. It was guided by the following objectives; identify the challenges encountered in the implementation of Extension Education, find out whether or not the University of Zambia Extension Education programs are in tandem with the educational needs of the local society in North Western Province, and assess whether or not the University of Zambia Extension Studies in North Western Province conducted other outreach programs apart from evening classes. In terms the research design, the study employed a case study design as it allowed the researcher to bring out a case and study it in its natural setting. Questionnaire and interview guide were the instruments used to collect data from the respondents comprising 97 students and 1 officer administering the office of the Resident Lecturer. It emerged from the findings that there were many challenges that the University of Zambia encountered in the implementation of extension education, central of all was the lack of qualified part time tutors in addressing the educational needs of the community in which it operated. The study also established that most of the courses offered by the University Extension Studies in North Western Province did not answer to the educational needs of the people in the Province. In view of the findings the study recommended that the University of Zambia should ensure that the provincial office is adequately and appropriately staffed with qualified personnel and also make a deliberate effort to create a policy to involve the local community.

Internationalization Issues and Export Performance of Manufacturing SMEs in North Western Province, Sri Lanka

Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) plays a major role in the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), providing job opportunities, reducing poverty etc. Even though they have contributing in large to the economy still they are facing number of challenges when internationalizing their businesses. Since this study focused on the factors influence on SMEs internationalizing their businesses. Based on review literature and discussion of expert in the field, four critical factors were identified namely competition, technology, legal requirements and support from the government. Researches received fifty-five questionnaires from the manufacturing Small and Medium sized Enterprise (SME) owners in North Western Province. Fifty completed questionnaires used to measure the effect of four issues on export performance in Sri Lanka. Descriptive statistics, correlation analysis and regression analysis used to analysis data using SPSS.
 The study reveals that out of four critical factors competition, support from the government showed a positive relationship with performance of internationalized Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) while technology showed a negative relationship and legal requirements showed no relationship. Among these four critical factors most significant factor was competition. Second most significant factor was support from government and technology; legal requirements were at last. This study will give a big support for Small and Medium sized Enterprise (SME) owners, policy makers, researchers and etc. Policy makers and government should encourage internationalization of SMEs to achieve higher performance and give big contribution to the country. Further research needs to conduct on SME internationalization and their issues with massive sample covering both manufacturing and service industries.

New Data on Two Subspecies of Mesobuthus eupeus, the Most Medically Important Scorpion Species in Northwestern Iran.

Scorpions are among the most medically important arthropods in Iran, particularly northwestern areas. To date, five scorpion species, i.e. Mesobuthus eupeus, Mesobuthus caucasicus, Androctonus crassicauda, Hottentotta saulcyi, and scorpio maurus, have been identified. The family Buthidae is responsible for most cases of scorpionism in Iran. The Mesobuthus eupeus species belong to this family and is commonly distributed from Turkey to China, including Iran. Among these species, Mesobuthus eupeus is regarded as the most medically important species and responsible for most cases of envenomation in this area. Morphological differences between some species collected in the study area have been reported. The present study, thus, aimed to identify the subspecies of Mesobuthus eupeus in northwestern Iran. Scorpions were captured in the summer months from 37 localities in three northwestern provinces in Iran: West Azerbaijan, East Azerbaijan, and Ardabil. Scorpion collection was carried out using rock rolling and ultraviolet methods. A total of 376 specimens of Mesobutus eupeus (177males and 199 females) were collected and identified as Mesobuthus eupeus (98.4%) and Mesobuthus eupeus philippovitschi (1.6%). Owing to the findings of our study, M.e.philippovitschi has been added to the scorpion fauna of northwestern parts of Iran for the first time. Unlike M.e. eupeus which is widely distributed from plains to mountainous regions, M.e.philippovitschi has limited distribution and is found mostly along the borders with neighboring countries. This subspecies is the most medically important and most prevalent one in the region. The findings of the present study also provide the basis for future consideration of regional antivenom production for this medically important species.

Principles of the Roman cadastre in the north-western provinces of the Empire

Principles of the Roman cadastre in the north-western provinces of the Empire

HIV-1 CRF07_BC transmission dynamics in China: two decades of national molecular surveillance

ABSTRACT By analyzing an unprecedentedly large, longitudinal HIV-1 CRF07_BC sequence dataset collected from China in the past two decades, we sought to build CRF07_BC lengthwise transmission networks, and understand its transmission dynamics. We divided CRF07_BC into two clusters based on phylogenetic analysis and an estimation of the pairwise genetic distance at 0.7%. Of 6213 sequences, 3607 (58.1%) linked to ≥1 other sequence. CRF07_BC was divided into two clusters: 07BC_O and 07BC_N. The 07BC_O is the original CRF07_BC, circulating in people who inject drugs (PWID) and heterosexuals, predominantly in southwestern and northwestern provinces of China. The 07BC_N is a new cluster, identified mostly in men having sex with men (MSM) in the northern provinces of China. Bayesian analysis indicates that CRF07_BC has experienced two phases of exponential growth, which was first driven by 07BC_O then 07BC_N. Compared to 07BC_O, the proportion of the parameter of population transmission risk (TR) of 07BC_N has risen constantly. The power-law function analyses reveal that 07BC_N has increased over years with higher degree. In 07BC_N, only 13.16% of MSM were linked to other risk groups, but these links represent 41.45%, 54.25%, and 55.07% of links among heterosexual females, heterosexual males, and male PWID respectively. This study indicates that CRF07_BC has evolved into two clusters in China, and their distributions are distinct across risk groups and geographical regions. 07BC_N shows a greater risk of transmission, and has gradually replaced 07BC_O. Furthermore, the results show that strengthening the MSM interventions could lower the rapidity of 07BC_N transmission in all risk groups.

Sustainable Business Solutions For Traditional Handicraft Product In The Northwestern Provinces Of Vietnam

Local tourism development requires us to consider many solutions, among them is sustainable solutions for business development of traditional handicraft products. This study is done based on surveys of northwestern provinces of Vietnam, in which authors use statistics, questionnaires and charts. Research findings show us that despite of potential chances, tourism activities still mainly exploit the value of available natural resources, are heavily spontaneous, lack of planning, small-scale tourism business, lack of creativity and diversity in tourism activities. services, infrastructure and quality of tourism service are limited. Our study also indicated that macro factors affect tourism activities.

Terracotta figurines found on the <em>Diyabate</em> Rock belonging to the <em>Thabbowa- Maradanmaduwa</em> culture

Terracotta figurines were discovered throughout Sri Lanka especially in the Northern, North Central and Eastern dry zones, have been traditionally assigned to the Thabbbowa- Maradanmaduwe culture the discovered sites indicate that they are closely connected with river basins, canals, tanks and agricultural landscapes. Terracotta figurines found from Diyabete rock in the Wanni Hathpaththu was the subject of this research and it is a place where archaeological evidence dating back to many ages. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the Terracotta figurines found during the survey of Diyabete rock. Diyabate rock is located in the village of Kattabuwawa in the Maho divisional secretariat in the Kurunegala district of the Northwestern province. It belongs to the dry zone of Sri Lanka. The research problem of this study is, to find out If the Terracotta figurines found during the survey is similar to the Thabbowa Maradanmaduwa culture. The hypothetical- deductive method was used during the research and based on the hypothesis that these terracotta figurines are belonging to the Thabbowa Maradanmaduwa culture. The data record was created by the non-structural field survey, library survey, taking photographs, drawing, studying 1:50000 metric maps and by taking measurements. Terracotta figurines are found throughout South Asia including Sri Lanka and range in date from the Neolithic Period, through the Early Historic Period and into the present. Accordingly, the geographical features similar to other places in the island where elements of the Thabbowa Maradanmaduwa culture are found can be seen in this place as well. During the study, this makes it possible to believed that the features of this terracotta belong to Thabbowa-Maradammaduwa culture. However, the data obtained from the surface survey carried out here is not sufficient to come to an accurate conclusion and it is necessary to study this site extensively.

New Perception to Proto History Burial Site in Andarawewa: An Archaeological and Geochemical Prospection

The megalithic burial site at Galgamuwa Andarawewa is situated at Anamaduwa Secretariat Division in the North Western Province, Sri Lanka. It is evident that 2500 years ago the proto history people had settled in this region. For burying of bodies, they have constructed different types of burials in several places in this region. Thus, to examine the geochemical prospection soil samples from the context (n=12), the glass bead samples from the furnace (n=3) and slag (n=2) were analyzed using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) for 22 major and trace elements. For the archaeological prospection, new findings of proto-history burials were found in the excavation carried out at Andarawewa and also many archaeological evidences were found through the field survey and excavations such as beads, inscriptions, pots and shard and chisels. The elemental values of the slag show that, Pb (470-483 mg/Kg) and Cu (855-1083 mg/Kg) are very much higher than Upper Continental Crustal Values. The white part contains higher Pb and Cu than the dark part of the slag. The concentrations of halides F, Br and I are almost similar in the white (glass) part and dark (slag) part. The Pb, Cu and as in the glass beads of the Andrawewa furnace shows that they range between 390-2920, 275-1411 and 12-127 mg/Kg respectively. However, the Fe and Ti concentrations are much lower than in the contexts though P2O5 is higher in the bead samples. The soil samples from the contexts of the area does not show high values for almost all the measured elements. Thus, indicating that the soils are local while the beads may have been prepared with sands brought from other areas. The carbon dating has dated that this burial belongs to the period from 500- 507 B.C.