Northwest Minnesota Research Articles

Grazing of Reed Canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) in Restored Wet Meadows

Reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) is a grass species that can dominate wet meadow plant communities. This study investigated if grazing by cattle on restored wet meadows suppresses reed canarygrass, thereby promoting the restored plant community. This study was conducted at two locations in northwest Minnesota, one managed by The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the other a Minnesota Board of Water and Soil Resources (BWSR) wetland bank site. Management practices used were a patch-burn grazing treatment on the TNC site and a high-density, short-duration grazing rotation system on the BWSR site. A pretreatment survey of total species canopy coverage was conducted before grazing followed by periodic surveys up to 7 y after grazing started. Both the patch-burn grazing and the grazing rotation system reduced reed canarygrass canopy cover by 49% compared to non-grazed control sites 5–7 y after grazing. With a reduction in reed canary grass canopy coverage due to grazing, the plant community moved toward a community with higher canopy coverage of Carex pellita that met restoration goals. Some of the species change was to grasses like Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), which is an exotic, invasive grass in prairies. The changed plant community held steady in native plant species richness or had an increase in native plant species richness. This study demonstrates grazing reduces the cover of reed canarygrass, while meeting restoration goals for wet meadows.

Naturally Acquired Antibodies to Influenza A Virus in Fall-Migrating North American Mallards.

Although waterfowl are the primary reservoir for multiple subtypes of influenza A virus (IAV), our understanding of population immunity in naturally infected waterfowl is poorly understood. Population immunity may be an important driver of seasonal subtype predominance in waterfowl populations and may affect the potential for establishment of introduced IAV such as the Eurasian-like A/Goose/Guangdong/1/1996 lineage in these populations. Here, we examine the prevalence of naturally acquired antibodies to nucleoprotein (NP), hemagglutinin (H3, H4, H5), and neuraminidase (N1, N2, N6, N8) in early migrating mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) sampled in Northwest Minnesota during staging and early fall migration in September 2014, 2015, 2017, and 2018. Serologic results were compared to historic and contemporary virus isolation results from these same study sites. The prevalence of antibodies to NP ranged from 60.8–76.1% in hatch-year (HY) birds and from 86.0–92.7% in after-hatch-year (AHY, >1-year-old) mallards indicating a high level of previous infection with IAV early in the fall migration season. Neutralizing antibodies were detected against H3, H4, and H5 in all years as were antibodies to N1, N2, N6, and N8. A high proportion of NP seropositive ducks tested positive for antibodies to multiple HA and NA subtypes, and this was more common in the AHY age class. Antibody prevalence to the HA and NA subtypes included in this study were consistent with the predominance of H4N6 in these populations during all years and reflected a broadening of the antibody response with age. Additional work is needed to document the longevity of these immune responses, if and how they correlate with protection against IAV transmission, infection, and disease, and if, as detected in this study, they adequately describe the true extent of exposure to IAV or specific HA or NA subtypes.

GOES-16 Observations of Blowing Snow in Horizontal Convective Rolls on 24 February 2019

Abstract On 24 February 2019, strong winds behind an Arctic cold front led to widespread blowing snow across the northern Great Plains including areas in eastern North/South Dakota and western Minnesota. Impacts of the event ranged from blizzard conditions in northwest Minnesota to sporadic, minor reductions in visibility across the region. This study documents the event using remotely sensed observations from platforms including geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites, an S-band radar, and time-lapse images from a camera located at the University of North Dakota in Grand Forks, North Dakota. Blowing snow is observed as plumes that resemble horizontal convective rolls (HCRs). Variations in near-infrared imagery are documented, and supporting observations suggest this is due to the occurrence or absence of clouds on top of the blowing snow layer. While lack of in situ observations preclude further investigation of physical differences between plumes, the utility of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite-16 (GOES-16) satellite to operational forecasters is discussed. Improvements to spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolution courtesy of the Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI) on board GOES-16 allows for daytime detection of blowing snow events that previously, was only possible with instruments on board polar-orbiting satellites. This has improved Impact-Based Decision Support Services (IDSS) at National Weather Service offices that deal with the hazard of blowing snow.

Bovine Tuberculosis Management in Northwest Minnesota and Implications of the Risk Information Seeking and Processing (RISP) Model for Wildlife Disease Management.

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an infectious, zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis that can spread between domestic and wild animals, as well as to humans. The disease is characterized by the progressive development of lesions that compromise the victim's lungs and lymph system. The disease was first identified in northwest Minnesota in both cattle and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in 2005. Due to its risks to human and animal health, bTB has numerous implications related to population management, policy outcomes, stakeholder relations, and economic impacts. When dealing with complicated risks, like bTB, individuals often seek out and process information as a method to learn about, and cope, with the risk. We developed a questionnaire that adapted components of the Risk Information Seeking and Processing (RISP) model and surveyed northwest Minnesota deer hunters. Our objectives were to better understand how stakeholders perceive and act on information regarding disease management in wildlife and to understand the utility of the RISP model for such management contexts. We drew a random proportional sample of licensed deer hunters (n = 2100) from the area affected by bTB and conducted a multi-contact mail survey. We found that 43% of the variability in the information-seeking behaviors of respondents was explained by demographics, hunting importance, personal risk perceptions, attitudes, and subjective norms. However, these results are largely attributable to the factors in the RISP model encompassed by components of the Theory of Planned Behavior (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intentions). This information can help managers contextualize individuals' perceived risks to better frame communication efforts to address stakeholder concerns and develop best practices for disease communication. While the state of Minnesota is currently considered free of bTB, future outbreaks remain possible in Minnesota and elsewhere. Understanding the key factors in the processes through which deer hunters seek out information pertaining to the disease can help managers collect the data necessary to aid decisions about desired future management outcomes. In addition, testing RISP model performance in applied research improves its future use across a broad spectrum of topics throughout veterinary disease management.

A Probabilistic Shortage of Private Land Opened to Hunters in Northwest Minnesota

Outdoor recreation in Northwest Minnesota is popular year round, and many residents and visitors participate in activities such as hunting, fishing, snowmobiling, boating, and much more. Land available for hunting, however, is at a particular premium. Hunters overall do not appear to have enough land on which to hunt as they compete with both other hunters and state regulations. Some private land owners have land that they keep for their own hunting purposes, and some of that land is kept exclusively for hunting. Private landowners in NWMN have consistently demonstrated an unwillingness to open their land to outside consumptive recreational uses, such as hunting, even for a fee. This situation may leads to potential overuse of some land with respect to hunting, while other land is potentially underused, creating a potential “tragedy of the anticommons”. Meanwhile, hotels and resorts in the region are engaged in the ever-growing worldwide trend of ecotourism and agritourism, though they have relatively few arrangements with private land owners. In this study, a probabilistic demand approach is used to analyze strategic interaction between land owners and hunters based on the results of three surveys conducted for the State of Minnesota and the Economic Development Administration (EDA). Mechanisms to create an outcome that aligns the utility maximization strategies of land owners and hunters are suggested.

Fate and consequence of nutrients at an abandoned feedlot, Glacial Ridge National Wildlife Refuge, Minnesota, USA

Old, abandoned feedlots may serve as a source of nutrients that can degrade groundwater and downstream water quality. We characterized the distribution and concentration of nutrients at the Crookston Cattle Company feedlot (northwest Minnesota, USA), 15 years after it ended operations in 1999. Groundwater nitrate concentration decreased from 55 mg/L (as nitrogen) in 2003 to less than 5 mg/L since 2007. Results from stable isotope analysis, with δ15N and δ18O in groundwater nitrate ranging up to +44 and +30‰, respectively, suggest denitrification as the cause, rather than either nitrate transport from the site or dilution. Phosphorus, with soil B-horizon concentrations as much as 112 and averaging 24 mg/kg, is sequestered by carbonate-rich glacial sediments and, serendipitously, an iron-rich sand deposit formed millennia ago by wave action along the shore of glacial Lake Agassiz. Map analysis indicates roughly 20,000 kg of P in excess of background concentration remains in soil at the 15 ha site. Evidence suggests that the former feedlot has not affected water quality significantly in an agricultural ditch that drains the feedlot and its vicinity. Rather than originating from the feedlot, small increases of total phosphorus observed in the downstream ditch likely result from release of phosphorus from nearby recently restored wetlands. More consequential than elevated nutrient concentrations to the future reclamation of this and similar sites is the persistence of robust non-native species. Our results suggest that before development, feedlot sites should be evaluated for their phosphorus sequestration and denitrification potential, thus mitigating the potential for later off-site transport of nutrients.

The Feasibility and Efficacy of a Healthy Restaurant Initiative in Northwest Minnesota: Putting Health on the Menu Pilot Study

The Feasibility and Efficacy of a Healthy Restaurant Initiative in Northwest Minnesota: Putting Health on the Menu Pilot Study

Oxygen stable isotopic disparities among sympatric small land snail species from northwest Minnesota, USA

The oxygen isotopic composition (δ18O) of land snail shells can be a valuable paleoenvironmental archive if the climatic parameters that influence the isotopic system are fully understood. Previous calibration studies have examined a limited number of species or individuals, and most have focused on larger (>10mm) taxa, which do not represent the dominant shell material in the Quaternary fossil record. In this study, we evaluate the δ18O values of small land snails (<10mm), which are common in modern settings and are often preserved in a wide array of Quaternary geologic and archeologic deposits. Our primary goal was to determine if coexisting species record equivalent isotopic information in their shells, regardless of differences in their ecology, dietary habits, behavior, and/or body size. We collected and analyzed 265 individuals of 11 species from 12 sites in northwest Minnesota (USA), which exhibits extremely abundant and diverse terrestrial malacofauna in North America. We did not observe significant correlations between shell δ18O values and the type of ecosystem (forest/grassland) or hydrologic setting (upland/lowland). However, the majority of species differed significantly in shell δ18O values. Larger taxa (Catinella, Succinea, Discus) consistently yielded higher δ18O values than smaller taxa (Euconulus, Gastrocopta, Hawaiia, Vallonia), by up to ~3‰. These isotopic offsets among sympatric taxa could be attributed to a number of physical, behavioral, and/or evolutionary traits, including the ability of larger species to tolerate drier conditions better than their smaller counterparts, differences in their preferred microhabitats or phylogentic non-independence. Regardless of the reason, our results imply that researchers should not combine isotopic data from different types of land snails without first investigating modern specimens to determine if it is appropriate. Moreover, our data suggest that combining instrumental climate data, a snail flux-balance model, and shell δ18O values can help us to better understand the ecology of land snails.

Evaluation of pathogen-specific biomarkers for the diagnosis of tuberculosis in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

OBJECTIVE To develop a noninvasive biomarker-based detection system specific for Mycobacterium bovis for monitoring infection in wild animals. SAMPLE Serum samples from 8 experimentally infected yearling white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and 3 age-matched control deer and from 393 Minnesota Department of Natural Resources hunter-harvested white-tailed deer in northwest Minnesota. PROCEDURES 8 yearling deer were inoculated with 2 × 108 CFUs of virulent M bovis strain 1315 (day 0), and sera were obtained on days 0, 19, 48, and 60; sera were obtained from 3 uninoculated control deer on those same days. Sera from these deer and 9 M bovis-positive hunter-harvested deer were tested for 3 Mycobacterium-specific biomarkers (MB1895c, MB2515c, and polyketide synthase 5) by use of an indirect ELISA. That same ELISA was used to test sera obtained from 384 exposed noninfected deer in northwest Minnesota from 2007 through 2010, concurrent with an outbreak of tuberculosis involving cattle and deer in that region. RESULTS ELISA results revealed that tuberculosis infection could be detected as early as 48 days after inoculation in experimentally infected deer. Results for 384 deer sera revealed that prevalence of tuberculosis decreased over the 4-year period. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested that the prevalence of tuberculosis in Minnesota deer decreased after 2009 but tuberculosis may have persisted (as subclinical disease) at extremely low levels, as indicated by the presence of low concentrations of circulating biomarkers. Biomarker-based diagnostic tests may offer a specific approach for early identification of M bovis infection.

Developing a growing degree day model for North Dakota and Northern Minnesota soybean

Farmers in North Dakota and Northern Minnesota did not have a model to predict when their soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) crop will be mature. Soybean plants need to be mature before the first fall freeze. The objectives of this study were to estimate needed accumulated growing degree days (AGDD) for adapted soybean maturity groups (MG) to reach maturity (R8). Research was conducted during 2007–2012 at northern, central, and southern North Dakota, to develop a model to predict the soybean maturity date based on accumulated GDDs and to verify the model using field research data from 2013 to 2015. Based on 1816 data points a regression analysis was performed which predicted that 1666, 1862, 2030 AGDD (with a 50°F base temperature) were needed to reach maturity for 00.7, 0.4, and 1.0 MG soybean cultivars, respectively.The predicted values were used to create a model that allows producers to select the MG of their cultivar, date of planting, and the nearest North Dakota Agricultural Weather Network (NDAWN) station. The output provides the predicted maturity date, as well as the average first day of occurrence of select threshold temperatures (36°, 32° and 28°F) at 50% probability level. This model will help growers to judge the risks of certain frost occurring before the selected cultivar's projected maturity date. The projected maturity date is based on two parts. The first part is the observed period from the planting date to the date the model is queried and is based on daily maximum and minimum temperatures. The second part is the forecast period that is based on normal (1981–2010 average) daily maximum and minimum temperatures from the queried date through the end of the select growing season. The growing degree days (GDD) values are accumulated from the planting date through the end of season based on these daily maximum and minimum temperatures. Input into the model should be for adapted MG soybean for the region and for planting dates between May 15 and 31. Farmers and agriculturist in North Dakota and northwest Minnesota can use the model before planting to determine if a MG would mature before the frost with varying temperature thresholds and monitor the accumulation of GDD and development of the crop during the season and estimated date of maturity.

Sustainability Planning and Collaboration in Rural Canada: Taking the Next Steps ed. by Lars Hallstrom et al.

Reviewed by: Sustainability Planning and Collaboration in Rural Canada: Taking the Next Steps ed. by Lars Hallstrom et al. Duane (Dewey) Thorbeck Sustainability Planning and Collaboration in Rural Canada: Taking the Next Steps. Edited by Lars Hallstrom, Mary Becke, Glen Hvenegaard, and Karsten Mundel. Edmonton: University of Alberta Press, 2016. ix + 370 pp. Figures, maps, index. $49.95 paper. This book is an excellent compilation of research on rural sustainability issues in Canada, covering a number of topics by university researchers and rural communities working closely together. It is an outgrowth of a 2010 "Taking the Next Steps" conference organized by the Alberta Center for Sustainable Rural Communities held in a rural city north of Edmonton. Participants in the conference represented a rural community as well as the research community. The book is an assemblage with great emphasis on academic details, but the reader will find some very interesting rural stories within it. I applaud the Center for Great Plains Studies for reaching across the border to promote this important book. The rural issues the contributors discuss all involve public engagement with academics and rural citizens working together, covering a wide range of issues, from Aboriginal communities to land use regarding conversion of farmland, to economic impacts of rural population loss and aging, and the meanings of sustainability. The book describes "real places and real challenges" (352) throughout Canada. The last chapter, by Roger Epp, a political science professor, is a very good summary of the book as well as an outline of rural complexities in Canada. I grew up in northwest Minnesota on the edge of the Great Plains, in a subregion sharing the Red River watershed that flows north into Canada, impacting urban and rural areas on both sides of the border. As a practicing architect and founder/director of the Center for Rural Design at the University of Minnesota, my world travels and experiences created a passion to bring design as a problem-solving process and design thinking to rural issues, linking urban and rural futures together. For the past 20 years I have researched problems impacting both urban and rural people in Minnesota and worldwide. The connections between urban and rural are most critical because you cannot successfully resolve rural issues with also dealing with urban issues and vice versa. As good as this book is, it reflects traditional academic thinking, researching, and discussing issues in publications separately rather than crossing borders and seeking connections between. The academy must transform [End Page 144] itself to become more relevant. The lack of any reference to design and design thinking or any connections between urban and rural in dealing with and developing solutions for the future of rural Canada attests to my concern. With the potential of another 2.5 billion people on the planet by 2050, it is critical that global impacts of climate change, food security, renewable energy, water resources, environmental resiliency, and wellness (human, animal, and environmental) be looked at as an integrated rural and urban problem that must be resolved together—locally and globally simultaneously. Together we must find ways to shape land uses today so that future generations can also shape theirs. After all, Earth is the place we all call home. Duane (Dewey) Thorbeck Emeritus Founder/Director of the Center for Rural Design Copyright © 2017 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Soil geochemical parameters influencing the spatial distribution of anthrax in Northwest Minnesota, USA

Bacillus anthracis is the pathogenic bacterium that causes anthrax, which dwells in soils as highly resilient endospores. B. anthracis spore viability in soil is dependent upon environmental conditions, but the soil properties necessary for spore survival are unclear. In this study we used a range of soil geochemical and physical parameters to predict the spatial distribution of B. anthracis in northwest Minnesota, where 64 cases of anthrax in livestock were reported from 2000 to 2013. Two modeling approaches at different spatial scales were used to identify the soil conditions most correlated to known anthrax cases using both statewide and locally collected soil data. Ecological niche models were constructed using the Maximum Entropy (Maxent) approach and included 11 soil parameters as environmental inputs and recorded anthrax cases as known presences. One ecological niche model used soil data and anthrax presences for the entire state while a second model used locally sampled soil data (n = 125) and a subset of anthrax presences, providing a test of spatial scale. In addition, simple logistic regression models using the localized soil data served as an independent measure of variable importance. Maxent model results indicate that at a statewide level, soil calcium and magnesium concentrations, soil pH, and sand content are the most important properties for predicting soil suitability for B. anthracis while at the local level, clay and sand content along with phosphorous and strontium concentrations are most important. These results also show that the spatial scale of analysis is important when considering soil parameters most important for B. anthracis spores. For example, at a broad scale, B. anthracis spores may require Ca-rich soils and an alkaline pH, but may also concentrate in microenvironments with high Sr concentrations. The study is also one of the first ecological niche models that demonstrates the major importance of soil texture for defining the ecological niche of B. anthracis. These results will help improve our understanding of the soil geochemical conditions most suitable for B. anthracis as well as more reliably identify areas where anthrax may be found to focus prevention and remediation efforts.

Distribution and Biomass Allocation in Relation to Depth of Flowering Rush (Butomus umbellatus) in the Detroit Lakes, Minnesota

The Detroit Lakes chain of lakes consists of five basins in northwest Minnesota adjacent to the town of Detroit Lakes. Flowering rush has been established in these basins since the 1960s. We evaluated the distribution of flowering rush in the five basins using a point intercept method, with 830 points distributed in a grid with points 150 m apart. These data were analyzed to determine whether invasive and native species frequencies were different between 2010 and 2011. We also assessed co-occurrence of flowering rush with native hardstem bulrush. The distribution of both flowering rush and hardstem bulrush was unchanged from 2010 to 2011. Flowering rush is invading areas with native plants and not establishing in unvegetated areas. Although flowering rush is found as deep as 4.5 m, it is most frequent at a depth of 1.3 m. We also examined the distribution of biomass and growth across a depth gradient from 0.3 to 3.0 m in 0.3-m intervals. At each 0.3-m interval, three biomass samples were collected at each of 10 transects for a total of 30 samples per depth interval or 300 biomass samples. At each point, leaf height, emergent leaf height, water depth, number of ramets, and number of rhizome buds were counted. Biomass samples were collected in a 0.018-m2 core sampler, sorted to shoots and belowground biomass. We found that flowering rush height and biomass peaked at 1.3 m and declined with greater depth. Bud density was negatively related to water depth. Bud density averaged 300 buds m–2, which was three times the average ramet density (100 ramets m–2).

Is Entomology on the MCAT?: Encouraging Less-Than-Enthusiastic Biology Majors to Become Excited About Insects

When I first started teaching introductory courses in biology and entomology at Concordia College, I was surprised by the disinterest many biology majors displayed toward organisms that were not human (with the possible exception of disease-causing organisms). The prevailing attitude seemed to be that if it wasn't covered on the MCAT, then it wasn't worthy of the student's time or effort to learn about it (e.g., Rivers 2006). As such, I tried to design my general entomology course with pre-med students in mind. However, even though I was trying to cater to the vast majority of biology majors interested in medicine, I still had a challenge getting students to enroll in entomology, even with a camping trip to the North Dakota Badlands. In those early years of my career, I designed the course to start with both internal and external anatomy. I then covered insect growth and development, insect senses and behavior, insect-plant interactions, predation, and other ecological aspects. The final quarter of the semester focused on applied entomology, with the majority of time covering medical aspects and forensic entomology. Students were required to make an insect collection to illustrate the diversity of insects that could be found in the northwest Minnesota region. However, this approach to entomology did not attract many students, and I cancelled class one semester due to low enrollment. After the cancellation of my class, I decided I needed …

Talking Big: Lessons Learned from a 9000 Hectare Restoration in the Northern Tallgrass Prairie

Large tracts (&gt;1000 ha) of prairie are essential to the sustainability of grassland ecosystem services, yet in many ecoregions only small fragments remain. Glacial Ridge is among the largest prairie-wetland restorations ever attempted. Started in 2000, the 9000 ha project in northwest Minnesota, USA, was initiated to reconnect 14 small tallgrass prairie remnants. In all, 15,200 ha of contiguous habitat comprise the project's direct accomplishment. We created a partnership of more than 30 organizations, filled 177 km of drainage ditch, restored 1240 ha of wetland, and replanted 8100 ha. Flooding has been mitigated, water quality improved, and native vegetation reestablished. Animals not documented for decades have again occupied the site. Despite these accomplishments, the project would have been unnecessary if the land had been purchased in the 1970s, prior to conversion to agriculture, at one-tenth the restoration cost. Our challenges related to funding, differences in partners' restoration philosophy, community concerns about floods and tax losses, difficulties in obtaining seed, and follow-up management of invasive weeds. We summarize the restoration process and share basic principles that will help others to develop large-scale prairie restoration projects in the future.

Strengthening 4-H Program Communication Through Technology

Advances in technology are transforming how youth and parents interact with programs. The Strengthening 4-H Communication through Technology project was implemented in eight county 4-H programs in Northwest Minnesota. This article outlines the intentional process used to effectively implement technology in program planning. The project includes: assessing current communication tools used; evaluating participants' preferences for receiving information; educating staff on current research trends; and training teams of youth and adults with the Forrester Research Model (2011) to implement social media as a program communication tool. The process helps staff identify audience and purpose of using technology for their specific needs.

Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of agricultural fires in the central United States in relation to land cover and land use

Agricultural burning is an important land use practice in the central U.S. but has received little attention in the literature, whereas most of the focus has been on wildfires in forested areas. Given the effects that agricultural burning can have on biodiversity and emissions of greenhouse gasses, there is a need to quantify the spatial and temporal patterns of fire in agricultural landscapes of the central U.S. Three years (2006–2008) of the MODIS 1 km daily active fire product generated from the MODIS Terra and Aqua satellite data were used. The 2007 Cropland Data Layer developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture was used to examine fire distribution by land cover/land use (LCLU) type. Global ordinary least square (OLS) models and local geographically weighted regression (GWR) analyses were used to explore spatial variability in relationships between fire detection density and LCLU classes. The monthly total number of fire detections peaked in April and the density of fire detections (number of fires/km2/3 years) was generally higher in areas dominated by agriculture than areas dominated by forest. Fire seasonality varied among areas dominated by different types of agriculture and land use. The effects of LCLU classes on fire detection density varied spatially, with grassland being the primary correlate of fire detection density in eastern Kansas; whereas wheat cropping was important in central Kansas, northeast North Dakota, and northwest Minnesota.

Responses of Spring Wheat and Soybean to Subsurface Drainage in Northwest Minnesota

The advantages and adoption of subsurface drainage are well documented in many parts of the Upper Midwest. The adoption of subsurface drainage in the northern half of Minnesota, in particular the Red River of the North Basin (RRB), has been relatively small compared with other intensively drained regions of the Upper Midwest. The objectives of this research were to measure the effect of subsurface drainage on grain yield and grain quality of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] in the RRB. Experimental sites were established near Brooks and Crookston, MN. At each site subsurface drainage was installed based on drainage coefficients of 6.3, 12.7, and 19 mm d−1 of excess soil water. The grain yield of both wheat and soybean did not improve with subsurface drainage. In contrast to grain yield, grain protein in both wheat and soybean increased. The grain protein increased linearly in spring wheat as the drainage coefficient increased. In soybean, grain protein showed a quadratic response to the increase in the drainage coefficient. A correlated response to the increase in grain protein was detected with the quadratic decrease in oil content in soybean. These results suggest that subsurface drainage as a means to supplement the predominant system of land leveling and surface drainage may have limited applicability in the RRB as subsurface drainage did not improve grain yield of spring wheat or soybean, greatly limiting the economic feasibility of subsurface drainage.

Influence of Subsurface Drainage on Soil Temperature in a Cold Climate

Soil temperature during springtime is an important factor for crop establishment and growth in poorly drained soils of northwest Minnesota. In this region, shallow water tables causing spring planting delays and excess water conditions during the growing season, may have contributed to significant unplanted cropland and yield reductions in recent years. Temperature is a regulating factor for many biological and chemical processes in the soil. One of the most commonly cited benefits of subsurface drainage on poorly drained soils is faster soil warm-up in the spring. Previous studies of this phenomenon do not provide definitive conclusions concerning the influence of soil drainage on soil temperature. The results of three site years of field observations of soil temperatures from drainage research plots at two locations in northwest Minnesota are presented herein. Replicated soil temperature and water table depths were measured continuously at five depths for two drain spacings and an undrained treatment. Subsurface drainage was found to significantly increase soil temperatures in both a coarser textured Vallers loam soil and a finer textured Hegne silty clay loam soil. Up to 4°C temperature increases occurred primarily between May and July with the greatest increases at 30-60 cm depths. Treatments with narrow drainage spacing showed a greater spring temperature increase than treatments with wider drainage spacings.

Pathogens, Nutritional Deficiency, and Climate Influences on a Declining Moose Population

Abstract Several potential proximate causes may be implicated in a recent (post-1984) decline in moose (Alces alces andersoni) numbers at their southern range periphery in northwest Minnesota, USA. These causes include deleterious effects of infectious pathogens, some of which are associated with white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), negative effects of climate change, increased food competition with deer or moose, legal or illegal hunting, and increased predation by gray wolves (Canis lupus) and black bears (Ursus americanus). Long-standing factors that may have contributed to the moose decline include those typically associated with marginal habitat such as nutritional deficiencies. We examined survival and productivity among radiocollared (n = 152) adult female and juvenile moose in northwest Minnesota during 1995–2000, and assessed cause of death and pathology through carcass necropsy of radiocollared and non-radiocollared animals. Aerial moose surveys suggested that hunting was an unlikely sour...