Northwestern Arabia Research Articles

Living at the wadi – integrating geomorphology and archaeology at the oasis of Qurayyah (NW Arabia)

ABSTRACT The archaeological site Qurayyah, situated in the NW of the Tabuk Province of Saudi Arabia, has been repeatedly described as one of the largest and most significant oases of Northwestern Arabia. Human occupation in the oasis started at least from the early Holocene and continued to the Nabatean, Roman and late Byzantine period. The hydrologically favored position results from its specific geomorphological location where the plateaus fade towards the east and the landscape opens towards the Tabuk Basin so that a balanced water supply was ensured. We present a geomorphological map (1:20,000; main map) based on the interpretation of a high-resolution satellite image and detailed control in the field. The map integrates archaeological, hydraulic and natural features in order to show how the people at Qurayyah structured their landscape and developed water management strategies in relation to prevailing geomorphological processes during the incipient phase (Bronze Age) of the oasis.

Rome's zenith commemorated

Following four centuries of Roman expansion, the Emperor Trajan led the Empire to its greatest extent by annexing Dacia (Transylvania), north-western Arabia and Sinai and, briefly, all of Armenia and Mesopotamia. He bolstered imperial administration, reformed provincial government, clarified certain principles of justice and encouraged a system of welfare, thealimenta(Bennett 2001). Last year, 2017, was the nineteen-hundredth anniversary of Trajan's death. The occasion was marked in various ways across Europe, and the opportunity to reflect on Trajan's legacy was particularly poignant in view of the continent's present troubles.

Iconographies of the Sacred and Power of the Desert Nomads: A Reappraisal of the Desert Rock Art of the Late Bronze/Iron Age Southern Levant and Northwestern Arabia

Summary During the Late Bronze and Iron Ages, the vast arid areas of the southern Levant, northwestern Arabia and Sinai were inhabited by populations whose main way of living was nomadic herding and trade, small-scale agriculture and occasional mining, complemented with a few settled centers. The nomadic, non-literate communities have been traditionally studied through the lenses of the outside written sources (especially, the New Kingdom Egyptian and Neo-Assyrian inscriptions) and sometimes seen as intrinsically stable, unranked societies. However, the desert societies left an enormous record of rock art that has not received similar attention. This article aims to study the local rock art and the iconography of other visual media it influenced, focusing on the information they supply on the social organization of these societies. The analysis provides several – yet still tentative – results on the sacred and power of the desert nomads: it attests the emergence of local nomadic chiefs in the LBA/IA trans...

Tsunami waves extensively resurfaced the shorelines of an early Martian ocean.

It has been proposed that ~3.4 billion years ago an ocean fed by enormous catastrophic floods covered most of the Martian northern lowlands. However, a persistent problem with this hypothesis is the lack of definitive paleoshoreline features. Here, based on geomorphic and thermal image mapping in the circum-Chryse and northwestern Arabia Terra regions of the northern plains, in combination with numerical analyses, we show evidence for two enormous tsunami events possibly triggered by bolide impacts, resulting in craters ~30 km in diameter and occurring perhaps a few million years apart. The tsunamis produced widespread littoral landforms, including run-up water-ice-rich and bouldery lobes, which extended tens to hundreds of kilometers over gently sloping plains and boundary cratered highlands, as well as backwash channels where wave retreat occurred on highland-boundary surfaces. The ice-rich lobes formed in association with the younger tsunami, showing that their emplacement took place following a transition into a colder global climatic regime that occurred after the older tsunami event. We conclude that, on early Mars, tsunamis played a major role in generating and resurfacing coastal terrains.

When the desert was green: Grassland expansion during the early Holocene in northwestern Arabia

An early-to-mid Holocene lake in the north of the oasis of Tayma, northwestern Saudi Arabia, proved to be an excellent palynological archive. A shallow, probably brackish water body formed at about 9200 cal BP, with the dominance of goosefoot throughout the sequence indicating the persistence of desert vegetation. However, distinct vegetation changes are recorded during the early Holocene. Grasslands spread soon after 9000 cal BP and reached their maximal expansion ca 8600–8000 cal BP. At about 8000 cal BP these grasslands retreated abruptly and were replaced by more drought-resistant dwarf-shrublands, similar to the present-day ecosystems. The recorded early Holocene grassland expansion furnishes for the first time evidence of an additional and more favourable grazing resource, and thereby improved conditions for herders/hunters, during the Early Holocene in northwestern Arabia, which retreated abruptly due to aridification at about 8000 cal BP.

Melt instabilities in an intraplate lithosphere and implications for volcanism in the Harrat Ash‐Shaam volcanic field (NW Arabia)

AbstractWe investigate melt generation in a slowly extending lithosphere with the aim of understanding the spatial and temporal relationships between magmatism and preexisting rift systems. We present numerical models that consider feedback between melt generation and lithospheric deformation, and we incorporate three different damage mechanisms: brittle damage, creep damage, and melt damage. Melt conditions are calculated with a Helmholtz free energy minimization method, and the energy equation is solved self‐consistently for latent heat and shear heating effects. Using a case of a slowly extending (1–1.5 mm/yr) continental lithosphere with a relatively low surface heat flow (~50 mW/m2), we show that melt‐rich shear bands are nucleated at the bottom of the lithosphere as a result of shear heating and damage mechanisms. Upon further deformation, melt zones intersect creep damage zones, thus forming channels that may be used for the melt to migrate upward. If a preexisting structure resides only in the brittle crust, it does not control the path of melt migration to the surface, and melt‐filled channels propagate from the bottom upwards, independently of upper crustal structures. In contrast, a preexisting weak structure that reaches a critical depth of 20 km allows fast (~2 Ma) propagation of melt‐filled channels that link melt damage from the bottom of the lithosphere to near‐surface structures. Our model results may explain the short time scale, volume, and magma extraction from the asthenosphere through a low surface heat flow lithosphere, such as observed, for example, in the Harrat Ash‐Shaam volcanic field (northwestern Arabia), which developed in the Arabian Plate and is spatially linked to the Azraq‐Sirhan Graben.

Gods from north-eastern and north-western Arabia in cuneiform texts from the First Sealand Dynasty, and a cuneiform inscription from Tell en-Naṣbeh,c.1500 BC

A cuneiform archive in the Schoyen collection dated around 1500 BC, mainly in the reign of Ayadaragalama, a king of the First Sealand Dynasty in Babylonia, was published in 2009. The claim of that king to be ‘king of the world’ is assessed, with implications of finding an abbreviated version of his name inscribed on a broken bronze circlet from Tell en-Naṣbeh in Palestine. Use of two divine names Anzak and Yau in personal names in the archive may be related to contacts between the Sealand king and Dilmun/Bahrain on the one hand, and ancient Midian on the other.

The southernmost margin of the Tethys realm during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic: Initial geometry and timing of the inversion processes

Along the northern border of Africa, Pangea breakup has been diachronic. During the Jurassic, the Alpine Tethys propagated northeastward from the Atlantic to the Alps. During the Permian, the Neo‐Tethys propagated westward from Oman to northwestern Arabia. Then a secondary and late branch of Neo‐Tethys gave birth to the East Mediterranean basin. Finally the two oceans connected at end of Jurassic times, achieving the development of Africa northern plate boundary. By the Late Cretaceous, convergence between Africa and Eurasia led to the progressive closure of the Tethys realm. The continental collision is not completely achieved, and the different segments of the confrontation zone (Maghreb, central and East Mediterranean, Zagros, and Oman) expose different stages of the process. However, we emphasize the existence of synchronous geodynamic events from one end of the system to the other, although they do not have the same meaning. Two of them are particularly important. The Campanian‐Santonian (C‐S) event corresponds to (1) obduction and exhumation of high‐pressure–low‐temperature metamorphic rocks around the Arabian promontory, (2) inversion along the margins of the East Mediterranean basins, and (3) lithosphere buckling in the Atlas system (Maghreb) and adjacent Sahara platform. The middle‐late Eocene (MLE) event corresponds to (1) the onset of collision at the northern corner of Arabia, (2) the onset of slab retreat in the Mediterranean, and (3) inversion along the margin of the East Mediterranean as well as in the Atlas. The C‐S event coincides with a change in plate kinematics resulting in an abrupt increase of convergence velocity. The MLE event coincides with a period of strong coupling between the Africa and Eurasia plates and an abrupt decrease of convergence velocity. In the middle of the system, the central Mediterranean seems to escape to the effects of convergence and is the site of quite permanent extensional movements since the Triassic.

Middle–Late Eocene structure of the southern Levant continental margin — Tectonic motion versus global sea-level change

During the Paleogene greenhouse episode Earth experienced the warmest period of the Cenozoic while global sea level rose by more than 100 m. However, geological evidence from the Levant margin, northwestern Arabian plate, indicates that throughout this period seabed deepening exceeded 1000 m. Lithology from Israel, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan is mainly pelagic and neritic, interfered by occasional fossil sub-marine slumps. In order to understand this dissimilarity we quantify the vertical tectonic motion of the Levant continental margin through the Paleogene. The margin began to take shape during the Late Permian and it was reactivated during the Oligocene. Based on information from outcrops, drillholes, seismic reflection and refraction, gravity, and previous publications, a multi-layered model of the Levant lithosphere was established. Layers include the Moho, top of the crystalline basement and covering sediments up to the Late Eocene. The model was restored horizontally by 100 km along the younger Dead Sea transform. Assuming local isostatic compensation, vertical restoration yielded the paleo-bathymetry which prevailed across northwestern Arabia during the Middle–Late Eocene. Results show that following the margin subsidence the Cretaceous Levantine platform became ramp shaped during the Eocene. Most parts of the central Levant were submerged under ~ 200 to ~ 1800 m of water, while the paleo-bathymetric gradients ranged from ~ 2° at the shelf to ~ 6° at the slope. The apparent dissimilarity between sea level and our tectonic-based calculations is up to an order of magnitude. These differences may be resolved by accounting for vertical tectonic motions and sediment supply rates. Our results stress the importance of the presented crustal structure. As opposed to the backstripping procedure, the structural map of the top Eocene interface was constructed upwards from the well established top Turonian (Judea Group) interface since only scarce and sporadic outcrops of the target horizon are available. We suggest that a similar approach should be applied to re-evaluate the depositional environments across the entire continental margin of the eastern Mediterranean, an area with proven hydrocarbon prospects.

The Camel and the Tent: An Exploration of Technological Change among Early Pastoralists

Previous articleNext article No AccessArticleThe Camel and the Tent: An Exploration of Technological Change among Early Pastoralists*Steven A. Rosen, and Benjamin A. SaidelSteven A. RosenBen-Gurion University Search for more articles by this author , and Benjamin A. SaidelEast Carolina University Search for more articles by this author Ben-Gurion UniversityEast Carolina University*We are grateful to our colleagues Aref Abu Rabia, Gunnar Lehmann, Mayer Gruber, Michael Streck, Jeffrey Szuchman, Oded Tammuz, and Daniel Vainshtub for their help with and suggestions concerning various aspects of this paper. We are truly indebted to three anonymous reviewers for JNES whose insightful comments demanded that we significantly sharpen and improve our thinking on some of the issues presented. Needless to say, all errors and misconceptions derive from our own misunderstandings.PDFPDF PLUS Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Journal of Near Eastern Studies Volume 69, Number 1April 2010 Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/654940 Views: 142Total views on this site Citations: 20Citations are reported from Crossref © 2010 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Mamun Rashid, Dilshad Rahat Ara, Salem Buhashima Abdalla Mapping socio-physical legacies of Emirati villas: contingency and spatial continuity or rift, City, Territory and Architecture 9, no.11 (Feb 2022).https://doi.org/10.1186/s40410-021-00146-xMamun Rashid, Dilshad Ara Tectonics in the Gulf Architecture: ‘Modernity of Tradition’ in Buildings, (Apr 2019): 137–150.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7519-4_6Damien Agut‑Labordère, Bérangère Redon Introduction, (Jan 2020): 9–20.https://doi.org/10.4000/books.momeditions.8522Martin Heide Dromedaries in the Hebrew Bible towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, (Jan 2020): 81–94.https://doi.org/10.4000/books.momeditions.8552Benjamin S. Arbuckle, Emily L. Hammer The Rise of Pastoralism in the Ancient Near East, Journal of Archaeological Research 27, no.33 (Sep 2018): 391–449.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-018-9124-8Achim Lichtenberger, Rubina Raja, Eivind Heldaas Seland, Tim Kinnaird, Ian A. Simpson Urban-Riverine Hinterland Synergies in Semi-Arid Environments: Millennial-Scale Change, Adaptations, and Environmental Responses at Gerasa/Jerash, Journal of Field Archaeology 44, no.55 (Jun 2019): 333–351.https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2019.1625619Steven A. Rosen Hunting to Herding to Trading to Warfare: A Chronology of Animal Exploitation in the Negev, (Nov 2019): 63–92.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24363-0_3Arkadiusz Sołtysiak, Holger Schutkowski Stable isotopic evidence for land use patterns in the Middle Euphrates Valley, Syria, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 166, no.44 (Apr 2018): 861–874.https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23480William Ralston Murl Gardner, Jargalan Burentogtokh Mobile Domiciles of the Eurasian Steppe: Archaeological Evidence of Possible Dwelling Space during the Early Iron Age, Journal of Field Archaeology 43, no.55 (Jun 2018): 345–361.https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2018.1475994Juan Manuel Tebes Iconographies of the Sacred and Power of the Desert Nomads: A Reappraisal of the Desert Rock Art of the Late Bronze/Iron Age Southern Levant and Northwestern Arabia, Die Welt des Orients 47, no.11 (Jun 2017): 4–24.https://doi.org/10.13109/wdor.2017.47.1.4William Honeychurch, Cheryl A. Makarewicz The Archaeology of Pastoral Nomadism, Annual Review of Anthropology 45, no.11 (Oct 2016): 341–359.https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102215-095827Efrat Blumenfeld-Lieberthal, David Eilam , ( 2016): 127.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32653-5_8Christine M. Rodrigue Animal Domestication, (Mar 2016): 325–332.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7747-7_8437Eivind Heldaas Seland, Michael Bintley Writ in water, lines in sand: Ancient trade routes, models and comparative evidence, Cogent Arts & Humanities 2, no.11 (Nov 2015).https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2015.1110272Christine M. Rodrigue Animal Domestication, (Feb 2015): 1–9.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_8437-2Davida Eisenberg-Degen, Steven Rosen Chronological Trends in Negev Rock Art: The Har Michia Petroglyphs as a Test Case, Arts 2, no.44 (Oct 2013): 225–252.https://doi.org/10.3390/arts2040225Jesse Casana Radial route systems and agro-pastoral strategies in the Fertile Crescent: New discoveries from western Syria and southwestern Iran, Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 32, no.22 (Jun 2013): 257–273.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2012.12.004William Zimmerle Camel, (Oct 2012).https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah07024Benjamin S. Arbuckle Pastoralism, Provisioning, and Power at Bronze Age Acemhöyük, Turkey, American Anthropologist 114, no.33 (Aug 2012): 462–476.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1433.2012.01446.xEivind Heldaas Seland Nomads and Caravan Trade in the Syrian Desert, (): 184–204.https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108573276.009

Crustal deformation in northwestern Arabia from GPS measurements in Syria: Slow slip rate along the northern Dead Sea Fault

SUMMARY New Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements in NW Syria provide the first direct observations of near-field deformation associated with the northern Dead Sea fault system (DSFS) and demonstrate that the kinematics of the northern section of this transform plate boundary between the Arabian and Sinai plates deviate significantly from plate model predictions. Velocity estimates based on GPS survey campaigns in 2000, 2007 and 2008, demonstrate left-lateral shear along the northern DSFS with 1σ uncertainties less than 0.7 mm yr−1. These velocities are consistent with an elastic dislocation model with a slip rate of 1.8–3.3 mm yr−1 and a locking depth of 5–16 km. This geodetically determined slip rate is about half of that reported farther south along the central section (Lebanese restraining bend) and the southern section (Jordan Valley and Wadi Araba) of the transform and consequently requires some deformation to occur away from the transform along other geological structures. The factor of two difference in slip rates along the transform is also consistent with differing estimates of total fault slip that have occurred since the mid Miocene: 20–25 km along the northern DSFS (in NW Syria) versus about 45 km along the southern DSFS segment. Some of the strain deficit may be accommodated by north–south shortening within the southwestern segment of the Palmyride fold belt of central Syria. Additionally, a distinct change in velocity occurs within the Sinai plate itself. These new GPS measurements, when viewed alongside the palaeoseismic record and the modest level of present-day seismicity, suggest that the reported estimates of recurrence time of large earthquakes (M > 7) along the northern section of the DSFS may be underestimated owing to temporal clustering of such large historical earthquakes. Hence, a revised estimate of the earthquake hazard may be needed for NW Syria.

Magma Genesis and Mantle Dynamics at the Harrat Ash Shamah Volcanic Field (Southern Syria)

A geochemical and petrological study of Miocene to recent alkali basalts, basanites, hawaiites, mugearites, trachytes, and phonolites erupted within the Harrat Ash Shamah volcanic field was performed to reconstruct the magmatic evolution of southern Syria. The major element composition of the investigated lavas is mainly controlled by fractional crystallization of olivine, clinopyroxene, +/- Fe-Ti oxides and +/- apatite; feldspar fractionation is restricted to the most evolved lavas. Na2O and SiO2 variations within uncontaminated, primitive lavas as well as variably fractionated heavy rare earth element ratios suggest a formation by variable degrees of partial melting of different garnet peridotite sources triggered, probably, by changes in mantle temperature. The isotopic range as well as the variable trace element enrichment observed in the lavas imply derivation from both a volatile- and incompatible element-enriched asthenosphere and from a plume component. In addition, some lavas have been affected by crustal contamination. This effect is most prominent in evolved lavas older than 3.5 Ma, which assimilated 30-40% of crustal material. In general, the periodicity of volcanism in conjunction with temporal changes in lava composition and melting regime suggest that the Syrian volcanism was triggered by a pulsing mantle plume located underneath northwestern Arabia.

Petrogenesis of the Largest Intraplate Volcanic Field on the Arabian Plate (Jordan): a Mixed Lithosphere-Asthenosphere Source Activated by Lithospheric Extension

Miocene to Recent volcanism in northwestern Arabia produced the largest intraplate volcanic field on the Arabian plate (Harrat Ash Shaam, Jordan). The chemically and isotopically diverse volcanic field comprises mafic alkali basalts and basanites. The magmas underwent limited fractional crystallization of ol cpx plag and rare samples have assimilated up to 20% of Late Proterozoic crust en route to the surface. However, there are subtle Sr±Nd±Pb isotopic variations (Sr/Sr ˆ 0 70305±0 70377, Nd/Nd ˆ 0 51297±0 51285, Pb/ Pb ˆ 18 8±19 2), which exhibit marked correlations with major elements, incompatible trace element ratios and abundances in relatively primitive basalts (MgO 48 5 wt %), and cannot be explained by fractional crystallization and crustal contamination alone. Instead, the data require polybaric melting of heterogeneous sources. Semi-quantitative melt modelling suggests that this heterogeneity is the result of small degree melts (2±5%) from spineland garnet-facies mantle, inferred to be shallowArabian lithosphere, thatmixedwith smaller degreemelts (51%) from a predominantly deep garnet-bearing asthenospheric(?) source with ocean island basalt characteristics. The latter may be a ubiquitous part of the asthenosphere but is preferentially tapped at small degrees of partial melting. Volcanism in Jordan appears to be the result of melting lithospheric mantle in response to lithospheric extension. With time, thinning of the lithosphere allowed progressively deeper mantle (asthenosphere?) to be activated and melts from this to mix with the shallower lithospheric mantle melts. Although Jordanian intraplate volcanism is isotopically similar to examples of Late Cenozoic volcanism throughout the Arabian peninsula (Israel, Saudi Arabia), subtle chemical and isotopic differences between Yemen and Jordan intraplate volcanism suggest that the Afar plume has not been channelled northwestwards beneath the Arabian plate and played no role in producing the northern Saudi Arabian and Jordan intraplate volcanic fields.

Continuity and disruption in the ancient Hejaz: an assessment of current archaeological strategies

In this study I review two conflicting scenaria of the history of northwestern Arabia from approximately 1300 to 200 BC and discuss their theoretical and methodological determinants. The still sparse archaeological and historic information on this topic has been used in two quite different ways. On one hand there is the traditional culture historical approach which subordines all social interpretation to the precise strictures of an interrupted ceramic typology, on the other a recent attempt to interpret archaeological and textual data within the theoretical framework of a long-term historical model that integrates the Hejaz into the broader Near Eastern world system. I argue that these two approaches reflect fundamentally different approaches to the study of ancient society and that each incorporates a conceptual approach that necessarily determines its interpretational outcome. Furthermore I conclude that use of an inclusive theoretical model permits better integration of the growing archaeological and textual information bases and obviates much of the inconsistency and interpretational naivity that unavoidably derives from the culture historica approach.

Nabataean finds from Thaj and Qatif

Ties between the Nabataean area of northwestern Arabia and southern Palestine, and the northeastern portion of the Arabian peninsula have been discussed for some years. The material evidence of such ties is meagre, but nonetheless important. Two Nabataean coins from Thaj and one from Qatif are presented here, along with a painted Nabataean sherd from Thaj. Their implications are treated briefly.

Notes on the dialect of the Āl Murra of eastern and southern Arabia

It is widely held belief among bedouins that common linguistic characteristics point to a common genealogical origin. Bearing in mind the importance attached to racial origin amongst bedouins, it is not surprising that they should be keen observers of the dialect of their own and neighbouring tribes. My investigations of the bedouin dialects of the North and East of Arabia do indicate that a common geographical origin is often reflected in a uniform dialect. In this area many bedouin tribes seem to have left an original homeland in the west some 200 years ago, so that in the somewhat isolated conditions of bedouin life their dialect retains the characteristics of the speech of their homeland. A particularly striking case of this is the Rashāyida, a tribe which ‘Arab tradition allies to the Hutaim of north-western Arabia. At some time this tribe broke up and many of them moved east to become clients of the Muṭair. Many others however crossed by sea to the Sudan when they acquired new camels and resumed the nomadic way of life. At present, with the increasing prosperity of Saudi Arabia, many of these have returned as immigrant workers or have been repatriated. Their dialect, however, after a period of perhaps 150 years' separation, is still recognizably of the Najdī type. It would not be possible for dialectology to verify bedouin genealogies; nevertheless, it can be seen that it might support traditions about the earlier location of tribes, since historical sources are not very informative for the medieval period in the Arabian peninsula.

New Evidence of Transcurrent Movements in Red Sea Area and Petroleum Implications

New evidence, derived from the displaced positions of two pairs of prominent shear zones--Abu Masarib (Arabia)-Duwi (Africa) and Wadi Alhamd (Arabia)-Wadi Hafafit (Africa)-indicates that Arabia has moved northward about 150 km relative to Africa along the Red Sea rift. The displacement of the shear zones was observed initially in photographs of the Red Sea area taken during Gemini earth-orbiting missions and has been substantiated subsequently by data derived from the geologic literature. The movement also must have displaced the basement block in northwestern Arabia (Maqna block) from its original position at the southern end of the Gulf of Suez to its present position at the Gulf of Aqaba. Hence it is evident that Maqna block and the adjacent offshore area south of Sinai Peninsula were part of a structural unit (Greater Gulf of Suez basin) and thus are similar in sedimentary and tectonic history and petroleum potential. Gemini pictures show that the Red Sea structures are dominated by five major fissure systems; many show evidence of being transcurrent. Certain fissures trending WNW-ESE appear to bear a spatial relation to most oil occurrences in the Gulf of Suez.

The Distribution of Sanusi Lodges

This note on the distribution of the Sanusiya order in north Africa and western Arabia is a supplement to the article on the history of the order which appeared recently in Africa (vol. xv, no. 2). Use has been made of earlier efforts to list its lodges. The earliest authorities were mostly relying on hearsay and later writers have sometimes copied their lists without further inquiry. On the whole, however, their records are fairly accurate and, though many of the names they give are so badly transliterated that they would be unrecognizable to anyone dependent on maps alone, they can easily be identified by anyone who knows the countries at first hand. Even when a name cannot be identified it need not be assumed that it is necessarily incorrect, because lodges are often known by more than one name, sometimes, especially in the Marmarica, by the name of their Shaikhs. I have also been able to make use of a list of 128 lodges drawn up for me by al-Sayyid Ibrahim (whose father al-Sayyid Ahmad al-Sharif was the last head of the order), though it contains a number of inaccuracies; and of my own observations and inquiries, which cover Cyrenaica and, more superficially, Tripolitania and Egypt.

A Journey in North-Western Arabia

A Journey in North-Western Arabia

A Journey in North-Western Arabia: Discussion

A Journey in North-Western Arabia: Discussion