Northern Rwanda Research Articles

Climate Variability and Its Associated Community Losses in Gicumbi District, Northern Rwanda

Climate change causes loss on lives and livelihoods while regular update strengthens resilience. This study aimed to analyze the rainfall variability impact on livelihoods in Northern Rwanda. The data on community losses due to rainfall variability were considered from 2013 to 2019. The GIS and SPSS helped the data analysis process. The results showed high mean monthly rainfall (119.345 and 90.05 mm) in 2013 and 2017, respectively. This caused landslide, flood, rainstorms, windstorms, lightning, and hailstorms occurrence, which killed/injured people, damaged houses and cropland, livestock loss, and destruction of infrastructures. The correlation analysis indicated a statistically significant p-value of 0.0151 lower than 0.05 and approved that rainfall variability negatively impacts livelihoods. This study can enable policymakers to better understand how changes in rainfall impact livelihoods and strategic measures to adopt for climate variability and climate change adaptation.

Evidence for Transmission of Taenia solium Taeniasis/Cysticercosis in a Rural Area of Northern Rwanda.

Cysticercosis is a parasitic infection caused by the metacestode larval stage (cysticercus) of Taenia solium. In humans, cysticercosis may infect the central nervous system and cause neurocysticercosis, which is responsible for over 50,000 deaths per year worldwide and is the major cause of preventable epilepsy cases, especially in low-income countries. Cysticercosis infection is endemic in many less developed countries where poor hygiene conditions and free-range pig management favor their transmission. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 680 children from a rural primary school in Gakenke district (Northern province of Rwanda). Stool samples were collected from participants and analyzed using the Kato-Katz method (KK), formol-ether concentration (FEC), and/or copro-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CoAg-ELISA) to detect taeniasis. Blood samples were collected and analyzed using enzyme-linked immunoelectrotransfer blot (EITB) and antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) to detect human cysticercosis. The overall proportion of taeniasis positivity was 0.3% (2/680), and both cases were also confirmed by CoAg-ELISA. A total of 13.3% (76/572) of the children studied were positive to cysticercosis (T. solium-specific serum antibodies detected by EITB), of whom 38.0% (27/71) had viable cysticercus (T. solium antigens by Ag-ELISA). This study provides evidence of the highest cysticercosis prevalence reported in Rwanda in children to date. Systematic investigations into porcine and human cysticercosis as well as health education and hygiene measures for T. solium control are needed in Gakenke district.

Assessment of Delays in Emergency Surgical Care and Patient Postoperative Outcomes at a Referral Hospital in Northern Rwanda

Surgical interventions are cost-effective methods to save lives and prevent disabilities. Surgical delays and access to three Bellwether procedures are key monitoring indicators for universal access to safe and affordable surgical and anesthesia care and health system performance. This study assessed the delays in receiving surgical and anesthesia care for emergency surgical patients at a district hospital in Northern Rwanda. A questionnaire was used to survey all emergency surgical patients who presented at the hospital between May and July 2020, to assess the delays in seeking (first) and reaching (second) care. In-hospital (third) delay and patient outcomes within the first 7days postsurgery were collected by patient file auditing. Factors associated with third delay were identified through healthcare provider in-depth interviews. A total of 106 patients were surveyed, and nine healthcare providers were interviewed. The median was less than a day for first delay, 1day for second delay, and 16.5h for third delay for all emergency procedures. 20% of the Bellwether procedures were performed within two hours after arriving at the hospital. Factors affecting the delays included visiting a traditional healer, district of residence, referral system, income status, as well as shortage of surgeons and specialists, surgical supplies, and operating theaters. Further research to study the cause of delays within the referral system is needed. Surgical outreach, equipment, and infrastructure would help to shorten in-hospital delays. Longer-term follow-up studies on patient complications and outcomes due to delay in surgical care are needed.

Sociality and temporality in local experiences of distress and healing: Ethnographic research in northern Rwanda.

Prior studies have traced sociality and temporality as significant features of African healing. However, association between the two has not been explicitly investigated. This paper explores how sociality and temporality are associated in local experiences of distress and healing among northern Rwandans. The ethnographic research, including in-depth interviews, focus-group discussions and participant observation, was conducted in 2015–2016, with 43 participants from the Musanze district who have suffered from not only the genocide but also post-genocide massacres. Findings identified common local idioms of distress: ibikomere (wounded feelings), ihungabana (mental disturbances), ihahamuka (trauma), and kurwara mu mutwe (illness of the head, severe mental illness). One stage of distress was perceived to develop into another, slightly more serious than the previous. Social isolation played a significant role in the development as it activated ‘remembering’ and ‘thinking too much’ about the past and worsened symptoms. Subsequently, healing was experienced through social reconnection and a shift of time orientation from the past to the future; the healing experience traced a process of leaving the past behind, moving forwards and creating a future through community involvement. The experiences of distress and healing in this population were explained by two axes, i.e. sociality (isolation – reconnection) and temporality (past – future), which are associated with each other. Given the sociality–temporality association in African post-war healing, the study highlights that assistant programmes that facilitate social practice and future creation can be therapeutic and be an alternative for people who cannot benefit from talking-based and trauma-focused approaches.

The response of climbing bean to fertilizer and organic manure in the Northern Province of Rwanda

AbstractClimbing beans play a central role in food security of rural households in the densely populated highlands of East and Central Africa. Soil fertility degradation and the lack of nutrient inputs are major limitations to yield of beans and other crops. We conducted field trials in Northern Rwanda in Kinoni and Muko villages to evaluate the effect of mineral N, P, and K fertilizers (both alone and in combination) and farmyard manure on nitrogen fixation and grain yields of climbing bean in smallholder farmers’ fields. The trials were laid down in a randomized complete block design with seven replicate blocks in each village. Manure and fertilizer application led to greater yields in all fields, and the largest yields were achieved when manure was combined with NPK. Large variability in yield between fields was observed. Application of fertilizer together with manure increased the grain yield from 1.5 to 3.9 t ha−1in Kinoni and from 2.6 to 5.4 t ha−1in Muko. Fertilizer and/or manure increased stover yield from 0.8 to 2.3 t ha−1in Kinoni and from 1.5 to 3.4 t ha−1in Muko. Application of 30 kg P ha−1and 5 t manure ha−1led to increased N and P uptake (from 49 to 106 kg N ha−1and from 6.1 to 12.4 kg P ha−1in Kinoni and from 46 to 128 kg N ha−1and from 5.3 to 17.9 kg P ha−1in Muko). There was no clear relationship between soil fertility characteristics and the response of climbing bean to applied inputs at Muko site. However, at Kinoni site, limited response to manure and NPK application was observed in plots where soil available P and soil exchangeable K were relatively low. Our results show the benefits of using manure along with mineral fertilizers for increased climbing bean yields and nutrient uptake in smallholder farming systems.

Linking coping strategies to locally-perceived aetiologies of mental distress in northern Rwanda

IntroductionHow and why people in a particular setting turn to a specific coping strategy for their distress is pivotal for strengthening mental healthcare and this needs to be understood from...

Recommended modification of porridge and mixture to improve nutrient intake in the rural area of Northern Rwanda

In Rwanda, nutritional problems are increasingly drawing attention, and the National Nutrition Policy focuses on the solutions to reduce the prevalence of malnutrition and to improve household food intake. Since rural Rwandans typically have meals at home and household food intake is known to be affected by their socioeconomic status (SES), care should be taken to ensure that homemade meals are healthy. This study aimed to assess the current nutrient content of porridge and mixture so as to recommend modifications to be made to improve nutrient intake within rural households in Rwanda. A crosssectional study was conducted; anthropometric measurements and one-day weighed food records (WFRs) were collected from 30 participants in four households with different SES in the Musanze district in the Northern Province of Rwanda. The first objective of this study was to compare nutritional status and food intake among households with different SES. The study results indicated that SES did not solely explain the nutritional status of the household members, and co-existence of over-nutrition and undernutrition was observed within the better-off household. Although meal frequency per day and the number of dishes and ingredients were positively related to household SES, rural Rwandans consumed monotonous diets characterized by porridge for breakfast and mixture (a dish boiled some foods together) for lunch and dinner as a whole. These two familiar dishes, porridge and mixture, greatly affected their energy and nutrient intakes. The second objective was to compare energy and nutrient contents in the same dishes with different ingredients and cooking methods. Porridges were made by dissolving mixed flour (maize and sorghum flours) in hot water. The porridge did not contain vitamin A. The energy, protein, and iron contents of the porridge were affected by flour concentration. Thick porridge whose flour concentration is 13% is recommended. Beans and potatoes were popular ingredients of mixture. Beans were major sources of energy, protein, and iron intakes. Contrary to general assumption, roots and tubers were also the major sources of protein and iron intakes among the participants. To cook mixture that is well boiled and contains beans and potatoes is a feasible way to increase energy and nutrient intakes regardless of household SES. In order to provide good vitamin A intake, addition of yellow plantain, palm oil, and/or tomato is recommended. This study presents locally and economically feasible recommendations to make popular dishes more nutritious for rural Rwandans.

Mapping Landslide Susceptibility and Analyzing Its Impact on Community Livelihoods in Gakenke District, Northern Rwanda

This study spatially distributed landslide susceptibility and assessed its impact on community livelihoods in Gakenke district of Rwanda. The Global Positioning System (GPS) located recent landslides from which inventory map was built. Six conditioning factors: elevation, slope, land use and land cover, rainfall, soil texture and lithology were analyzed by Geographic Information System (GIS) to map landslide susceptibility. The results showed that Janja, Muzo, Kamubuga, Kivuruga and Muyongwe sector are highly susceptible to landslide. The elevation, slope, poor land management and rainfall are the key drivers to landslide in this area. The findings indicated that the residents are not aware of landslide causal factors due to low level of education and trainings. Also, rain harvest which could minimize the runoff is not yet practiced; this in turn impacts on people’s livelihoods by killing/injuring people, damaging their infrastructures and natural resources. Therefore, it is suggested to empower rainwater harvest, deliver education and training to enhance community awareness, and ensure that the local community is involved in planning and execution of landside risk reduction schedule.

How to increase the productivity and profitability of smallholder rainfed wheat in the Eastern African highlands? Northern Rwanda as a case study

As wheat demand is increasing in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), domestic production is being encouraged. The potential to increase the productivity and profitability of wheat appears large in the region, but little is known about the concrete interventions needed to meet that potential. In this study, we selected a site in Northern Rwanda (representative of the cool humid climatic zone which accounts for most of the spring wheat production of SSA) and analysed the determinants of wheat productivity and profitability for 130 smallholder farms during two consecutive short rainy seasons, namely 2017A and 2018A (wheat is seldom grown during long rainy seasons: potato is the preferred crop then). Although wheat yields were found to be high when compared to typical yields in SSA (means of 3469 and 3052 kg ha−1 during the seasons 2017A and 2018A, respectively), large yield gaps were also found (1.977 t ha−1 on average, or 37.6% of the highest farmer’s yield, defined as the average actual yields above the 90th percentile of this variable). Evidences presented in the paper suggest that wheat productivity could be increased through increased seeding rate (a 0.14% increase in wheat grain yield was found with a 1% increase in seeding rate), increased nitrogen (N) application combined with frequent weeding (a 0.02% increase in wheat grain yield was found with a 1% increase in N application and frequent weeding), and labour-saving technologies (e.g., herbicides and mechanization). If wheat profitability would also increase with frequent weeding and labour-saving technologies, it would decrease with increased input use in many cases. Indeed, seed, fertilizer and amendments represent most of the wheat production cost in the area. These results illustrate the importance of assessing the impact of narrowing the yield gap on profitability, not only productivity, as some yield-increasing technologies may not be desirable from an economic perspective. They also demonstrate that resource-saving technologies (input-saving e.g., precision agriculture, labour-saving e.g., mechanization) may be as much in demand by African smallholders as yield-increasing technologies, calling for a more balanced approach in current research and development initiatives on the continent.

Suffering of silenced people in northern Rwanda

To contribute to understanding the association between silence and suffering in the context of war and political repression, this study sheds light on the meaning-making process and explores the underlying mechanisms by which silence leads to suffering and how this suffering could be alleviated. The ethnographic research was conducted in 2015–2016, with 43 participants from northern Rwanda, who survived massacres after the 1994 genocide but were prevented from speaking about the experience by political constraints. The findings first describe their suffering, through grief, social isolation and loss of meaning in life and death (expressed as existential questions). Their suffering was worsened by ‘unspeakability’; that is, the political context that prevents victims from speaking freely about their war experience, including discussion of those who killed and those who were killed. Unspeakability exacerbated suffering since participants were obstructed from applying ready narratives (e.g. funerary rituals, traditional reconciliation systems) or constructing their own narratives which could ordinarily help them to process mourning and reconciliation and to make sense of the loss. They selectively employed silence for coping and protection, avoiding speaking about the past to maintain everyday life. However, at the same time, unprocessed mourning remained a serious problem, resulting in mental health problems such as hallucinations of the spirits of the dead; participants expressed a strong need for mourning rituals. Overall, this paper highlights the ways in which the suffering of the silenced population worsens when meaning-making processes are obstructed. To alleviate the suffering, it is essential to secure mourning rituals for all survivors, particularly those who, as part of the defeated group of war, are silenced and marginalized in history.

Community Care and Gift Economy: A Qualitative Study of a Hard-to-Reach Population Recovering from War in Northern Rwanda

Community Care and Gift Economy: A Qualitative Study of a Hard-to-Reach Population Recovering from War in Northern Rwanda

Community Resilience and Long-Term Impacts of Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Northern Rwanda.

Recently, discussions have considered how mental health and psychosocial support (MHPSS) can build upon local resilience in war-affected settings. To contribute to the knowledge in this field, the paper explored the gap between MHPSS and local communities in terms of perceived mental health problems and healing processes, and how the gap could be filled. Qualitative research was conducted in northern Rwanda with 43 participants between 2015 and 2016. Findings revealed how three particular gaps can isolate MHPSS recipients in their local community. First, whereas MHPSS applies bio-psychological frameworks to post-genocide mental health, community conceptualisations emphasise social aspects of suffering. Second, unlike MHPSS which encourages ‘talking’ about trauma, ‘practicing’ mutual support plays a major role in the community healing process. Third, MHPSS focuses on one part of the community (those who share the same background) and facilitates their healing in intervention groups. However, healing in natural communities continues in everyday life, through mutual support among different people. Despite these gaps, MHPSS recipients can be (re)integrated into the community through sharing suffering narratives and sharing life with other community members. The paper highlights the ways in which MHPSS could inclusively support different social groups in the overall geographical community, allowing members to preserve the existing reciprocity and recover collective life through their own initiatives.

On the taxonomic status and distribution of African species of Otomops (Chiroptera: Molossidae).

BackgroundFree-tailed bats of the genus Otomops are poorly known, and most species are documented from a handful of widely scattered localities. Recently, two allopatric species of Otomops were recognized in continental Africa: Otomops martiensseni (Matschie, 1897) in southern, central and western Africa, and the new species O. harrisoni Ralph et al., 2015 in the northeast and in Yemen.MethodsWe collected additional samples of Otomops in Kenya and Rwanda where the ranges of these taxa approach one another to clarify their geographic ranges and taxonomic status. Mitochondrial and nuclear intron sequences served to identify and delimit species; we also documented their echolocation call variation and ectoparasite complements.ResultsOtomops martiensseni, the southern African species, was documented in northern Kenya in Marsabit National Park. O. harrisoni, the northeastern African–Arabian species, was documented in southern Kenya and in a cave in Musanze District, Rwanda. Moreover, individuals of both species were found together at the Musanze cave, establishing them in precise spatial and temporal sympatry. Analyses of mitochondrial and nuclear loci identify no evidence of admixture between these forms, although available samples limit the power of this analysis. Echolocation call differences are also apparent among the three localities we analyzed. Three orders of insects and two families of mites are newly reported as ectoparasites of O. harrisoni.DiscussionOur results corroborate species rank for O. harrisoni and establish a zone of potential geographic overlap with O. martiensseni spanning at least 800 km of latitude. The new records establish the species in sympatry in northern Rwanda and add an additional species to the bat faunas of both Kenya and Rwanda. Future studies are needed to understand Otomops roosting requirements and movements, thereby explaining the paucity of known colonies and yielding better estimates of their conservation status. The discovery of mixed roosting associations in Rwanda invites further investigation.

Towards commercial agriculture in Rwanda: Understanding the determinants of market participation among smallholder bean farmers

Agricultural transformation is key to poverty reduction and food security in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In Rwanda, this transformation has focused on shifting subsistence-based production to market-oriented farming. Over the last one decade and a half, major emphasis has been placed on the intensification of production systems, promotion of farmers’ cooperatives, and enhancement of farmers’ access to markets. Although the country recorded an increase in food crop commercialization, subsistence farming is still prevalent amongst smallholder farmers. Yet, in the few studies conducted on agricultural transformation, smallholder commercialization has received scanty attention. As the country aims to achieve commercialized agriculture, there is a need to understand what factors can influence farmers’ decisions to participate in the output markets. This study analyses the levels of market participation and drivers of output commercialization, using a sample of 256 Common bean farmers from northern Rwanda. A double-hurdle model was used to analyse the data. Results indicated that 30% of the farmers participated in the market with an average commercialization index of 0.42. Land size, agricultural training and group membership of household head had a positive effect on households’ participation to bean market. The distance to the nearest access road that can be used throughout the year reduces the probability of commercialization at household level. The degree of market participation was positively influenced by price, education level of the household head and livestock income. On the other hand, distance to key markets had a negative effect on the degree of households’ commercialization. The findings of this paper show that participation in bean markets is still low, with disparities in the commercialized quantities amongst those who participate. Female-headed households were more likely to participate in bean markets, selling higher volumes than male-headed households. This gender difference suggests that bean production can be an important source of income for women smallholder farmers. The study recommends more efforts in improving road networks connecting to key markets, facilitating cross-border trade and increasing agricultural training amongst the farmers. Additionally, the use of improved inputs in bean production as well as income diversification through livestock rearing should be encouraged. All the interventions should be gender-sensitive so as not to deny women their source of livelihood through bean production and marketing. Keywords: Agricultural transformation, Commercialization, Markets, Gender, Doublehurdle, Smallholder farmers, Beans, Rwanda

Prevalence of Untreated Surgical Conditions in Rural Rwanda

In low- and middle-income countries, community-level surgical epidemiology is largely undefined. Accurate community-level surgical epidemiology is necessary for surgical health systems planning. To determine the prevalence of surgical conditions in Burera District, Northern Province, Rwanda. A cross-sectional study with a 2-stage cluster sample design (at village and household level) was carried out in Burera District in March and May 2012. A team of surgeons randomly sampled 30 villages with probability proportionate to village population size, then sampled 23 households within each village. All available household members were examined. The presence of 10 index surgical conditions (injuries/wounds, hernias/hydroceles, breast masses, neck masses, obstetric fistulas, undescended testes, hypospadias, hydrocephalus, cleft lip/palate, and clubfoot) was determined by physical examination. Prevalence was estimated overall and for each condition. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with surgical conditions, accounting for the complex survey design. Of the 2165 examined individuals, 1215 (56.2%) were female. The prevalence of any surgical condition among all examined individuals was 12% (95% CI, 9.2-14.9%). Half of conditions were hernias/hydroceles (49.6%), and 44% were injuries/wounds. In multivariable analysis, children 5 years or younger had twice the odds of having a surgical condition compared with married individuals 21 to 35 years of age (reference group) (odds ratio [OR], 2.2; 95% CI, 1.26-4.04; P = .01). The oldest group, people older than 50 years, also had twice the odds of having a surgical condition compared with the reference group (married, aged >50 years: OR, 2.3; 95% CI, 1.28-4.23; P = .01; unmarried, aged >50 years: OR, 2.38; 95% CI, 1.02-5.52; P = .06). Unmarried individuals 21 to 35 years of age and unmarried individuals aged 36 to 50 years had higher odds of a surgical condition compared with the reference group (aged 21-35 years: OR, 1.68; 95% CI, 0.74-3.82; P = .22; aged 36-50 years: OR, 3.35; 95% CI, 1.29-9.11; P = .02). There was no statistical difference in odds by sex, wealth, education, or travel time to the nearest hospital. The prevalence of surgically treatable conditions in northern Rwanda was considerably higher than previously estimated modeling and surveys in comparable low- and middle-income countries. This surgical backlog must be addressed in health system plans to increase surgical infrastructure and workforce in rural Africa.

Disentangling the positive and negative effects of trees on maize performance in smallholdings of Northern Rwanda

In the sub-humid parts of East Africa, high population density and pressure on land have led farmers to integrate multipurpose trees on farm. Although mixing trees and crops generates numerous benefits (e.g., fuelwood, timber), it often reduces crop yields. Whereas the effects of mature trees on crops are well studied in semi-arid parklands, there are only few studies for the sub-humid environment. The effects of mature Alnus acuminata (Kunth) and Markhamia lutea (Seem.) on crops were studied on-farm for four seasons in the sub-humid environment of northern Rwanda. Five sampling points for A. acuminata and M. lutea were: (i) 1m from tree trunk without maize, (ii) 3m from tree trunk without maize, (iii) 1m from tree trunk with maize, (iv) 3m from tree trunk with maize and (v) sole maize away from any tree. Nutrient availability and uptake, soil water, air temperature, solar radiation, crop growth and yields were measured. The APSIM-maize module was used to assess the sensitivity of maize yields to changes in these variables. Nutrients availability was higher under A. acuminata compared with M. lutea, because of higher litter fall but maize nutrient uptake increased only under A. acuminata 3m from tree trunk during a wetter season. None of tree species affected water availability for maize in the topsoil. Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), total solar radiation and day air temperature were reduced by both tree species. Maize crop at 1m and 3m from the tree trunk was shorter in height but had the same number and size of leaves when compared to sole maize plots. Crop yield was generally reduced more at 1m than at 3m from the tree trunk. A positive interaction between A. acuminata and maize was only apparent at 3m from the tree in one of the four seasons following higher litter fall, suggesting that the negative effect of shade was offset by extra N input during that season. In a modelled scenario under low N fertilization, larger N input from trees could compensate for yield loss caused by reduction in radiation and temperature in about 60% of the seasons. Our findings suggest that adequate pruning and high leaf litter recycling can reduce the negative effect of shade in low intensity farming systems.

Decentralisation as a post-conflict state-building strategy in Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Sierra Leone and Rwanda

This paper explores decentralisation’s contribution to post-conflict state building in four Commonwealth countries: UK (Northern Ireland), Sri Lanka, Sierra Leone and Rwanda. Drawing on insights from senior local government officials, it explores post-conflict institutional arrangements and finds that decentralisation policy has made a significant, if varied, contribution to community cohesion, reconciliation and state legitimacy in each country. In Northern Ireland and to a lesser extent Sri Lanka, quasi-federal structures have enabled peace negotiations through greater autonomy and state legitimacy in the eyes of former separatists. This has however limited further devolution to sub-provincial local councils. In Sierra Leone and Rwanda, decentralisation has had a more developmental rationale. Greater equity in basic local service provision and more inclusive local governance has supported community cohesion and reconciliation in all four countries, though there are capacity gaps and coordination issues with central government agencies. There is evidence decentralisation has contributed to peace in all four countries although in Rwanda the restriction on pluralism has limited local government flexibility to address community needs. The case studies offer key lessons and signpost continuing challenges, which may help other governments to consider what features of decentralisation may work best for their post-conflict political settlement and the socio-cultural dynamics of the communities they serve.

POOR FARMERS – POOR YIELDS: SOCIO-ECONOMIC, SOIL FERTILITY AND CROP MANAGEMENT INDICATORS AFFECTING CLIMBING BEAN PRODUCTIVITY IN NORTHERN RWANDA

SUMMARYClimbing bean is the key staple legume crop in the highlands of East and Central Africa. We assessed the impact of interactions between soil fertility characteristics, crop management and socio-economic factors, such as household resource endowment and gender of the farmer, on climbing bean productivity and yield responses to basal P fertiliser in northern Rwanda. Through a combination of detailed characterisations of 12 farms and on-farm demonstration trials at 110 sites, we evaluated variability in grain yields and responses to fertiliser. Grain yields varied between 0.14 and 6.9 t ha−1with an overall average of 1.69 t ha−1. Household resource endowment and gender of the farmer was strongly associated with climbing bean yield, even though these were partly confounded with Sector. Poorer households and women farmers achieved lower yields than wealthier households and male farmers. Household resource endowment and gender were likely to act as proxies for a range of agronomic and crop management factors that determine crop productivity, such as soil fertility, current and past access to organic manure and mineral fertiliser, access to sufficient quality staking material, ability to conduct crop management operation on time, but we found evidence for only some of these relationships. Poorer households and female farmers grew beans on soils with poorer soil fertility. Moreover, poorer households had a lower density of stakes, while stake density was strongly correlated with yield. Diammonium phosphate (DAP) fertiliser application led to a substantial increase in the average grain yield (0.66 t ha−1), but a large variability in responses implied that its use would be economically worthwhile for roughly half of the farmers. For the sake of targeting agricultural innovations to those households that are most likely to adopt, the Ubudehe household typology – a Rwandan government system of wealth categorisation – could be a useful and easily available tool to structure rural households within regions of Rwanda that are relatively uniform in agro-ecology.

Perceptions of crop raiding: effects of land tenure and agro‐industry on human–wildlife conflict

AbstractHuman–wildlife conflict (HWC) is an increasingly recognized threat to successful conservation and development efforts through reducing support for conservation effort or threatening the livelihoods of marginalized human populations residing adjacent to protected areas. Although much research is conducted on characterizing these conflicts, such as quantifying crop damage or identifying proximal causes and correlates, there is little effort in identifying the wider, distal drivers of potential conflict. These wider factors may often play as much a part in defining exposure to loss through HWC as local ecological or socioeconomic factors. Using a mixed methods approach, the current study assessed the role of distal factors in defining perceived exposure to crop raiding around a central African protected area; Volcanoes National Park (VNP) in northern Rwanda. Although harbouring critically endangered biodiversity, this transboundary protected area also lies in a region experiencing significant social pressures and struggles for natural resources. This study found that land tenure limitations and restrictions on agricultural autonomy, often driven by neoliberal trade, significantly impact on perceptions of conflict with VNP. Additionally, the lack of adequate revenue sharing with communities most exposed to conflict continues to foster ill feeling towards conservation efforts by failing to counterbalance losses through crop raiding. This study has shown the importance of considering national and regional policy revisions in addressing the drivers of conflict, while the value of a holistic approach to establish the relative importance of distal and proximal factors in HWC has been shown.

Factors influencing the adoption of soil conservation techniques in Northern Rwanda

AbstractInadequate land management in the highlands of Rwanda has led to soil erosion which caused soil fertility decline. Farmers adopted the soil conservation techniques in order to mitigate the effects of soil erosion. The purpose of this study was to assess the factors that influence the adoption of soil conservation (SC) techniques in Gatebe sector located in N Rwanda. A survey was used for data collection among farmers. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression model. Results indicated that about 50% of farmers were aware of the causes of soil erosion such as cultivation on steep slope, frequent and intense rainfall and inadequate soil erosion control practices. In spite of the adoption of SC techniques such as agroforestry (90%), vegetative strips (80%), infiltration ditches, fence, and hedge rows (60%), the soil erosion persists because of over‐cultivation on small farmlands with steep slope, insufficient SC techniques, limited financial capacity, and inadequate practical training to maintain existing SC techniques. There was a significant positive influence of land acquisition means on the adoption of SC techniques. In fact, farmers who inherited or bought the land were 1.55 times more likely to adopt the SC techniques than those who borrowed or rented, because farmers who felt to have long‐ term use rights were more likely to invest in durable SC techniques. However, farmers who joined the land consolidation were 0.14 times likely not to adopt the SC techniques because there was a change of existing farming systems. Policymakers should focus on the improvement of farmers' awareness on soil erosion and efficient SC techniques through enhanced training, extension services and bottom‐up based support programs.