Northern Europe Research Articles

New Trends in Migration from Kyrgyzstan to the Russian Federation

In recent decades, population migration has become one of the main components of socio-economic development of Kyrgyzstan. In recent years, Kyrgyz citizens have been working in Russia and Kazakhstan. A comparative analysis of the number and structure of flows of Kyrgyz labour migrants is carried out on the basis of data from a sample national survey of household budgets, the National Statistical Committee of Kyrgyzstan, the Federal Migration Service of Russia, the Main Directorate for Migration Issues of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia, and Rosstat. The key problems of the social and legal situation of Kyrgyz migrants in Russia were identified: lack of registration at the place of stay, restriction/ ban on entry, non-payment of wages, access to medical care, and receipt of pensions. Gradually, under the influence of external and internal factors, new trends of labour migration to the Middle East and the Persian Gulf, the Republic of Korea and Japan, Europe and America have emerged. Migration flows are becoming more and more organised, as they involve the country's public authorities, private employment agencies, international companies and other actors. The study shows that the key needs for Kyrgyz migrant workers in the near future are concentrated in the following regions (in addition to traditional destinations): first, Western European countries (Great Britain and Germany); second, East Asia (Republic of Korea and Japan); third, Eastern European countries (Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria); fourth, the Middle East (Turkey and the Gulf countries); fifth, Northern Europe (Sweden and Finland). The official discourse in Kyrgyzstan is increasingly gaining momentum on the need to transform migration policy from large-scale export of labour resources to employment of surplus labour resources within the country by creating new jobs and expanding production. New ideological approaches to the transition of Kyrgyzstan from the category of countries– exporters of labour resources to the category of countries actively developing their own production and labour market are practically formed.

Prevalence and gender - specific analysis of a systemic sclerosis cohort in Latvia

BackgroundSystemic sclerosis (SSc) is considered by many to be one of the most severe autoimmune rheumatic diseases with lower prevalence observed in Northern Europe. No previous studies on the prevalence of SSc in Latvia have been conducted and the aim was to study the demographic and clinical data of patients with SSc in northeastern Europe country.MethodsThis study was conducted in two main Latvian hospitals for adults and includes patients with SSc who were consulted between 2016 and 2021.ResultsDuring the study period, 159 patients with SSc were consulted. The point prevalence on 1 January 2021 was 84.0 per million. Female to male ratio was 4.67:1, and highest gender ratio was observed in the age group 70–79-year (6.75:1). Antinuclear antibodies were present in 82.58% of patients, without gender difference. Centromere pattern was more frequently observed in females (40.19% vs. 19.04%), in contrast to speckled pattern (50.98% vs. 57.14%). At disease onset females tended to be younger (46.51 ± 13.52) than males (50.5 ± 16.64). Males had more diffuse cutaneous subtype, interstitial lung disease, pulmonary hypertension and esophageal dysmotility. More than half of patients received treatment with glucocorticoids at any point of the disease (68.31%), without gender difference.ConclusionsSystemic sclerosis is less common in Latvia than in other countries and regions. Due to its location, the data from Latvia are consistent with a north-south gradient in Europe. Gender ratio differences persisted in older age groups as well. Antinuclear antibodies presence did not differ between genders, but in female’s centromere pattern was much more likely to be present. Males had more severe disease course, but in both genders more than half of patients received treatment with GCs at any point of the disease.

북유럽 초·중 통합운영학교(Comprehensive School)의 특성 연구

Purpose: Due to the decline in school-age populations and urbanization, the discussion on integrated elementary and middle schools has begun in earnest. To effectively operate integrated schools, it is necessary to refer to the experiences of countries that have long implemented similar systems. Thus, this study aimed to explore the comprehensive school system in Northern Europe, where primary and lower-secondary schools are integrated, and analyze its characteristics to draw implications for the operation of integrated elementary and middle schools in the South Korean context. Methods: To achieve the research objectives, this study examined and analyzed the background and current status of the comprehensive school systems in Northern European countries—Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Estonia—that operate under a single structure integrating the primary and lower-secondary school education periods. The study also explored the teacher training systems, school evaluations, and student assessments in these countries. Results: The four countries aimed to achieve both social welfare for all citizens and educational effectiveness. The comprehensive school systems in each country share a common feature of striving to realize the values of social democracy. To link the two school levels, each country has developed its own teacher training and evaluation systems. Conclusion: These findings suggest that, in order to effectively operate integrated elementary and middle schools in the Korean context, it is essential to develop methods that link and integrate the two school levels while considering the specific characteristics of each level, promote collaboration among teachers, and clearly establish educational objectives in addition to administrative and economic goals.

European croplands under climate change: Carbon input changes required to increase projected soil organic carbon stocks

Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in agricultural systems is a pivotal strategy for promoting soil health and mitigating climate change. Global initiatives have set ambitious targets, aspiring to achieve an annual SOC stock increase of 4 ‰. In the European Union, the recently approved Nature Restoration Law aims to increase SOC stock trends in the top 30 cm of cropland mineral soils. However, current monitoring and reporting practices in some countries rely on simplistic SOC models with default parameters, which may not provide reliable predictions.In this paper, we study the feasibility of a 4 ‰ target in European croplands (i.e., an aspirational target proposed by The international “4 per 1000” Initiative), through estimations of required C input changes. To ensure robust predictions, we propose a novel calibration approach that links model parameters to pedo-climatic variables via statistical relationships from 16 long-term experiments. The effectiveness of the method is evaluated for three SOC models across 4281 sites from the European LUCAS soil survey.Our findings demonstrate that the statistical calibration of the multi-model ensemble improves the accuracy of 2015 and 2018 SOC stock predictions, compared to default parameterization. This improvement was however mainly due to the substantial enhancement of one of the models. According to the weighted multi-model mean, median C input changes to reach a 4 ‰ target for Northern, Central, and Southern Europe stand at 1.85, 1.20, and 0.13 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 under RCP 2.6, and 2.21, 1.26, and −0.10 Mg C ha−1 yr−1 under RCP 6.0, respectively.To achieve the aspirational 4 ‰ target, estimated C input change requirements exceed the predicted changes in net primary productivity under RCP 2.6 and RCP 6.0. This emphasizes the importance of strategic land-use and land-management interventions to enhance SOC stocks.

Impact of the Location and Energy Carriers Used on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from a Building

The growth in population increases greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions into the environment. High GHG emissions are attributed to meat production, due to its high energy demand. The largest carbon footprint in the production of poultry meat is generated by combustion. This paper deals with the problem of greenhouse gas emissions (total dust, CO, CO2, NOx, SOx and benzo(a)pyrene) resulting from the generation of energy for heating broiler houses located in different locations in Europe. The study includes continuous measurements of selected microclimate parameters: temperature and relative humidity inside and outside the building, floor temperature, wind speed and direction, and solar radiation intensity. Validation and calibration of the model, emission calculations, and analysis of the obtained results were conducted. Eighteen design variants were assumed, differentiated by the heating fuel used (hard coal, fuel oil, gaseous fuels), material and construction solutions for the floor and the location of the facility. The analysis showed that CO2 emissions for a facility located in northern Europe are 123,153 kg higher compared to the same building located in southern Europe. In addition, increasing the floor’s thermal resistance by 3.69 m2·K·W−1 reduced harmful gas emissions by an average of 5.7% for each of the locations analysed.

Research on Chaga hypoglycemic functional foods

Chaga, also known as Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát, belongs to the genera Basidiomycotina, Hymenomycetes, Hymenochaetales, Hymenochaetaceae, and Inonotus. Chaga is a brown polypore fungus that mostly grows under the bark of white birch and silver birch trees. It forms sarcoma-like sclerotia when the bark is damaged. It mainly grows in Northern Europe at the 40° to 50° north latitude, Siberia and the Far East in Russia, Hokkaido in Japan, and the Changbai Mountain area of the Heilongjiang Province and Jilin Province in China. Chaga has various pharmacological activities, such as anti-tumor, hypoglycemic, anti-viral, and anti-inflammatory. Inonotus obliquus, an edible fungus with the same origin as medicine and food, has attracted more and more attention. At present, Chaga has become a raw material with great potential for developing functional foods. In this article, Chaga’s blood sugar-lowering function, functional ingredients, and blood sugar-lowering mechanism and the development status of Chaga functional foods are reviewed and Chaga’s future development is analyzed and forecast.

Genetic diversity of salmonid fishes in the eastern part of the Onega Peninsula, Northern European Russia

The Onega Peninsula in the White Sea, north-western Russia, is a habitat for ecologically and economically significant salmonid species, i.e. Atlantic salmon Salmo salar Linnaeus, 1758 and brown trout S. trutta Linnaeus, 1758 (Salmoninae). However, these populations are currently understudied in terms of molecular approach. In this work, we assessed the genetic diversity and differentiation of S. salar and S. trutta from the eastern part of the Onega Peninsula based on mitochondrial (COI and cytb) and nuclear (RAG1) markers. We also traced a phylogeographic pattern of these species. Populations of brown trout in the studied watercourses mainly share low haplotype and nucleotide diversity, with the exception of the moderate values in the Gosdarea River. In turn, Atlantic salmon in the Ust’-Yaren’ga River has higher genetic diversity than brown trout. Our study reveals great importance of conservation measures and monitoring, as well as parasite pressure control, especially for brown trout, in the eastern part of the Onega Peninsula.

Correlation Between the Prevalence of Myasthenia Gravis and the Frequency of Class II Human Leucocyte Antigen Alleles in Various Geographical Locations Around the World.

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune condition characterised by muscle weakness due to antibodies produced against post-synaptic receptors. The impact of MG can be significant, especially with an ageing population. Human leukocyte antigens (HLA) are polymorphic genes associated with autoimmune conditions. Establishing the HLA alleles associated with MG may aid in the diagnosis, screening and early management of individuals at risk of MG. This research aims to establish the class II HLA alleles associated with the prevalence of MG in various regions of the world and identify the alleles that could predispose to the condition. A Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) flow chart and various databases including, Scopus and PubMed as well as other sources were used to find appropriate papers on HLA class II alleles associated with MG and the prevalence of MG in various countries. The frequency of selected HLA alleles in selected regions were obtained from the website, allelefrequencies.net. From this, a correlation coefficient and p-value were calculated to investigate whether the frequency of MG and the prevalence of HLA alleles had a significant association. The results highlighted two HLA alleles, DRB1*04:04 and DRB1*03, to have a significant positive association with the prevalence of MG. The frequency of the alleles showed regional variation, with European countries, particularly Northern Europe, exhibiting the highest frequencies. A significant positive correlation between HLA-DRB1*04:04 and DRB1*03 showed with the prevalence of MG, highlighting these alleles as a possible cause of the disease. Screening for these alleles, particularly in Northern Europe, may help identify individuals susceptible to MG.

Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in Popular Recreational Areas in Tallinn, Estonia: The Underestimated Risk of Tick-Borne Diseases.

This study reveals a significant presence of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in urban recreational areas of Tallinn, Estonia. During the period of May-June 2018, 815 Ixodes ticks were collected from an area of 11,200 m2 using the flagging method. Tick density reached up to 18.8 ticks per 100 m2, indicating a high concentration of ticks in these urban green spaces. Pathogen analysis demonstrated that 34% of the collected ticks were infected with at least one pathogen. Specifically, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., the causative agent of Lyme borreliosis, was detected in 17.4% of the ticks; Rickettsia spp. was detected in 13.5%; Neoehrlichia mikurensis was detected in 5.5%; Borrelia miyamotoi was detected in 2.6%; and Anaplasma phagocytophilum and tick-borne encephalitis virus were detected in 0.5% each. These findings indicate that the prevalence and abundance of ticks and tick-borne pathogens in these urban environments are comparable to or even exceed those observed in natural endemic areas. Given the increasing incidence of Lyme borreliosis in Central and Northern Europe, the risk of tick bites and subsequent infection in urban recreational sites should not be underestimated. Public health measures, including enhanced awareness and precautionary information, are essential to mitigate the risk of tick-borne diseases in these urban settings.

A new species of the soft scale insect genus Pulvinaria Targioni Tozzetti (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Coccidae) on Rhododendron spp. in Northern Europe

A new species of Pulvinaria, P. rhododendri Kahrer & Hodgson sp. nov. (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Coccidae), found on Rhododendron spp. (Ericaceae) in Denmark and Norway, is described and illustrated. Taxonomically, it appears to be close to P. camelicola Signoret and P. floccifera (Westwood). The geographic area of origin is uncertain but it has probably been introduced into northern Europe on imported live plant material. We also record P. camelicola from Norway for the first time, on Rhododendron sp.

Recent Research on the Human Biology of Pastoralists.

Despite encroachment by agricultural systems and globalization, pastoral nomads maintain a robust presence in terms of numbers and subsistence activity. At the same time, increasing concern about climate change has promoted awareness that increased climatic fluctuation may push pastoral population past their capacity for resilience. The response of pastoralists to climate change has important implications for our evolutionary past and our increasingly problematic future. Yet, pastoralists have received less explicit attention than foragers as populations under consistent selective constraints including limited caloric intake, high levels of habitual activity, and high disease burdens. Additional factors include exposure to cold and high temperatures, as well as high altitude. Over the last 20 or so years, the use of new techniques for measuring energetics, including actigraphs and doubly labeled water have built on existing noninvasive sample collection for hormones, immune markers and genes to provide a more detailed picture of the human biology of pastoral populations. Here I consider recent work on pastoralists from Siberia and northern Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America. I survey what is known about maternal milk composition and infant health, childhood growth, lactase persistence, and adult energy expenditure and lactase persistence to build a picture of the pastoralist biological response to environmental conditions, including heat, cold, and high altitude. Where available I include information about population history because of its importance for selection. I end by outlining the impact of milk consumption and climate over the human life cycle and make suggestions for further research.

Insight into the emerging insect to human pathogen Photorhabdus revealing geographic differences in immune cell tropism.

Photorhabdus asymbiotica is a species of the insect pathogenic Photorhabdus genus that has been isolated as an etiological agent in human infections. Since then, multiple isolates have been identified worldwide; however, actual clinical infections have so far only been identified in North America, Australia, and Nepal. Previous research on the clinical isolates had shown that the strains differed in their behaviour when infecting cultured human cells. In this study, we investigate the differences between the pathogenic activities of P. asymbiotica isolates from different geographic locations. Pathogenicity was analysed using infection assays with both cultured cell lines (THP-1, CHO, and HEK cells) and primary immune cells, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from human blood. Here, we present the findings from the Australian (Kingscliff) and North American (ATCC43949) clinical isolates, and non-clinical soilborne nematode isolates from Thailand (PB68) and Northern Europe (HIT and JUN) of P. asymbiotica. We also show the first findings from a new clinical isolate of P. luminescens (Texas), the first non-asymbiotica species to cause a human infection, confirming its ability to infect and survive inside human immune cells. Here for the first time, we show how P. asymbiotica selectively infects certain immune cells while avoiding others and that infectivity varies depending on growth temperature. We also show that the tropism varies depending on the geographic location a strain is isolated from, with only the European HIT and JUN strains lack the ability to survive within mammalian cells in tissue culture.

Quran Desecration Rallies in Scandinavia and the Netherlands: The Formation and Transnational Diffusion of an Anti-Muslim Protest Tactic

ABSTRACT Since 2019, Quran desecration rallies have proliferated across Northern Europe, leading to geopolitical tensions with Muslim-majority countries and domestic debates about freedom of speech. This article traces the diffusion trajectories of Quran desecration acts from their initiation in 2019 until November 2023 across Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Combining protest event analysis and process tracing based on mainstream media reporting and far-right social media, it shows how the desecration tactic spread from Denmark to remnants of the transnational Counter-Jihad Movement through a within-movement diffusion process involving both indirect and direct channels. Following Rasmus Paludan’s Quran-burning outside Turkey’s Embassy in Stockholm in January 2023, the tactic attracted massive international media attention. In Denmark and Sweden, the tactics’ repurposing toward geopolitical issues led to a spillover to actors unaffiliated with the far right, while in Norway and the Netherlands, the tactic hardly diffused beyond the anti-Islam activists. Drawing on far-right transnational diffusion literature, the article provides an empirically grounded and theoretically informed mapping of the recent wave of Quran desecration rallies, showing the various ways the same tactic spread throughout and into different domestic settings.

The role of geographical distance in transnational institutional engagement of the Czech diaspora: a comparative study

Engagement with institutions from migrants’ country of origin, both in the destination country and in the country of origin, is distinct transnational behaviour. This study investigates the impact of geographical distance on the institutional engagement of migrants from Czechia in five global regions. We examine how geographic (physical) proximity to Czechia shapes institutional engagement with the country of origin and identify factors beyond distance influencing institutional engagement. We analyzed survey data from Czech emigrants (N = 940) in neighbouring countries, Western and Northern Europe, Southern and Eastern Europe, overseas Anglo-Saxon countries, and other countries. We found that respondents from all more distant regions have higher levels of institutional engagement in the destination country than those from neighbouring countries. Length of stay and education were relevant factors for all selected regions, while place of residence (living in a metropolis) and the level of transnational behavior had varying impacts across regions. Concerning institutional engagement in origin country, the level of transnationalism was consistently the strongest predictor across. Transnational studies should incorporate geographic variables, such as physical distance into their conceptual frameworks. We expect our findings to be generalizable to other countries similar to Czechia, i.e. high-income countries whose citizens benefit from liberal visa regimes.

Different Influence of Two Intraseasonal Oscillations on the Spring Long‐Lived and Medium‐Lived Consecutive Cloudy‐Rainy Events in the Yangtze‐Huaihe River Valley

AbstractIn this study, the mechanisms for the long‐lived and medium‐lived regional consecutive cloudy‐rainy events (RCCREs) in the Yangtze‐Huaihe River valley (YHRV) are investigated by comparing the influences of 10–30‐day and 30–90‐day intraseasonal oscillations (ISOs). The evolution of medium‐lived RCCREs is generally dominated by the 10–30‐day ISO, while the 10–30‐day and 30–90‐day ISOs synergistically contribute to the occurrence of long‐lived RCCREs. Further analysis reveals that, when the East Asian westerly jet (EAWJ) shifts northward to the north of YHRV, a RCCRE in the YHRV occurs in 2 days later. In the medium‐lived RCCREs, the EAWJ retreats southward rapidly; while in the long‐lived RCCREs, the stronger 30–90‐day ISO prevents the southward retreat of EAWJ, which favors the persistence of the RCCREs in the YHRV. The northward shifted EAWJ facilitates the RCCREs by modulating the secondary atmospheric circulation, consequently enhancing the moisture convergence and ascending motion anomalies over the YHRV. The RCCREs‐related precursor wave train originates from northern Europe with at least a 4‐day lead. The wave train propagates southeastward to excite an anomalous high over East Asia, which contributes to the northward shift of EAWJ and subsequently the occurrence of RCCREs. Different from the rapid weakness of the precursor wave train associated with the medium‐lived RCCREs, the precursor wave train associated with the long‐lived RCCREs can be maintained by the 30–90‐day ISO, which consequently leads to a persistence of the northward located EAWJ and long‐lived RCCREs in the YHRV.

Drought impairs detritivore feeding activity more strongly in northern than in southern European latitudes

Soil detritivores play key roles in decomposition processes closely related to ecosystem services. Drought and soil organic carbon depletion due to agricultural management are detrimental to soil biodiversity, but their interactive effects on soil biota and associated processes have not been thoroughly investigated. In 2018, we used rain-out shelters to experimentally induce drought in wheat fields of contrasting levels of organic carbon in Sweden, Germany and Spain. That year Europe experienced a climatic dipole, with exceptionally severe droughts in northern latitudes. We assessed the feeding activity of soil detritivores by bait-lamina tests, and measured several abiotic and biotic soil parameters. In the peak of the dipole drought (summer) southern fields had the driest soils. Nonetheless, detritivore feeding activity responded to the experimental drought by shifting to deeper soil layers there. Low soil organic carbon (SOC) levels exacerbated the latter effect. However, in this same period, feeding activity in northern and central Europe was two orders of magnitude lower than in the south, and failed to respond to either the experimental treatment and/or SOC levels. Using mixed-effects longitudinal random forests, we detected various candidate drivers of detritivore feeding activity: soil moisture, phosphorus content, bacteria and nematodes. Different bacterial taxa were associated to detritivory in each country, but their potential influence was pervasive. Thus, our results suggest that drought had adverse effects on detritivore feeding, which were exacerbated northwards due to the climatic dipole. Increased SOC levels mitigated drought effects only in southern soils. Regional adaptation of soil biota to aridity could explain the response of detritivores in southern Europe to drought. Machine learning algorithms arise as useful tools for exploring potential drivers relating biodiversity to soil processes. Overall, future research on the effects of drought on soil biodiversity and processes will be key for tackling climate change impacts in terrestrial ecosystems.

Environmental ratification moves

For over 60 years, International Environmental Law has produced hundreds of texts aimed at protecting the environment at global to regional scales. Most of these texts do not gather the support of all the states concerned. The reasons for this are analysed here. This retrospective look provides a striking panorama of the current situation. The international and domestic motivations that lead a state to the sovereign decision to ratify or not a treaty, are first recalled and put into perspective in their interdependencies. The analysis of thousands of ratifications of 51 major treaties draws lines of divergence between leading states, follower states, and states reluctant to enter into environmental commitments. On a global scale the latter form a large majority, including most African and Asian states. The states of Northern and Western Europe are among the first to ratify these treaties, followed by other European states. G7 member states occupy vey contrasting normative positions. Overall, three major moves emerge from this global panorama. First, historical and persistent inequalities in the development of countries have cast an indelible shadow on environmental international multilateral treaties which do not bring the expected fruits of development. Second, in environmental matters, over the past 15 years the trend consists in establishing agreements of more restricted range (regional, bilateral), with commitments from states on fairly flexible objectives, adaptable to their social and economic context. Third, these agreements are set within the broadly negotiated and thematically inclusive principles of sustainable development.

Hunting with poisoned arrows during the Terminal Pleistocene in Northern Europe? A tip cross-sectional area assessment and list of potential arrow poison ingredients

The lithic projectile points of the Late Upper Palaeolithic (∼14.7–11.7 ka BP) in Northern Europe display a marked variation in size and design. The small tanged points characteristic of the latest phase in the sequence can be directly associated with finds of arrow-shafts and bow fragments, benchmarking the presence of archery. In the absence of such organic evidence during the older phases, size differences between tip designs may be used, with reference to ballistic principles, to derive hypotheses about ancient weapon systems. By calculating tip cross-sectional area values for a large sample of shouldered, backed, and tanged points from sites across the Northern Europe, we here explore likely changes in weapon use through time. In this context we specifically investigate the likelihood of the smallest of these tips as having been used with poison to increase hunting success. Our results show that: (i) bow-and-arrow technology most likely was in use already during the earliest phases of human occupation in the region; (ii) later on, different weapon systems equipped with different tip designs were used in parallel; and (iii) the smallest of lithic armatures align well with ethnographically documented poisoned arrows. To assist with future studies in the use of arrow poisons in Europe, we provide a list of potential poison sources, where they are currently distributed in the context of our study area.

Dating and Interpreting Landscapes of Livestock Herding: Excavation of a Hut Site and Enclosure in Southwestern Ireland

ABSTRACT Grazing livestock in uplands was a widespread practice in late Medieval and early modern Europe, but there can be uncertainty about the date and function of archaeological sites associated with herding. This paper reviews fieldwork on such sites in northern and northwestern Europe and reports on the excavation of a hut and enclosure in the mountains of southwestern Ireland. The hut was found to have been built in the 16th or 17th centuries a.d. and was probably used to oversee dairy animals (likely cows). The enclosure was dated to the early 18th or early–mid-19th century a.d. and is more likely associated with goat milking. The excavations demonstrate that construction dates can be obtained for pastoral sites in uplands of northwestern Europe. Furthermore, with careful reading of features in the surrounding landscape and consideration of documentary and ethnographic evidence, fieldwork can help determine the nature of pastoral economies over time.

A Culinary Imponderable

Alone among the peoples of northern Europe, Scots historically have harboured an aversion to pork. The cause, extent and even existence of the aversion, at times ascending to phobia, have been subject to a certain amount of debate for over a century. The degree and scope of the aversion varied across time and space but existed well into the twentieth century. Neither economic nor ecological considerations can explain the phenomenon, which arises from cultural conditions peculiar to Scotland.