Atacama Desert Of Northern Chile Research Articles

The giant coastal landslides of Northern Chile: Tectonic and climate interactions on a classic convergent plate margin

Documented for the first time are an extensive suite of late Neogene giant terrestrial coastal landslides along the classic convergent margin of western South America (18° to 24° south). These are remarkable in terms of their unusual abundance and atypical setting, such failures previously being linked with oceanic volcanic edifices or over-steepened glaciated coastlines. Located within the hyper-arid Coastal Cordillera of the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile we report the presence of more than 60 individual large-scale landslides with individual volumes up to 9 km3 developed over a horizontal coastline distance of some 650 km. These landslides were emplaced as a combination of rock avalanches and multiple rotational failures. The majority terminated directly into the Pacific – likely generating significant tsunami hazard to the Chilean and south Peruvian coastline in a region which is today considered to be part of a notorious seismic gap. The proliferation and scale of these Late Neogene giant landslides in this actively uplifting, hyperarid terrain suggests they are the main geomorphic agent for relief reduction, probably triggered by megathrust earthquakes and potentially providing a unique palaeoseismic archive. The temporal and spatial distribution of these giant landslides corresponds with a period of surface steepening of the forearc wedge in the Central Andes and south to north differential uplift associated with factors such as aseismic ridge subduction. The resulting surface gradient increases, combined with the persistent climatic aridity of the region, have served to limit effective relief-reducing geomorphic processes in this oversteepened terrain to large-scale landsliding. The phenomena documented here geospatially link previously recognised large-scale slope failures from the off-shore environment and higher altitude areas of the Andean forearc, suggesting that large-scale landsliding is capable of transferring sediment on a regional scale to the off-shore Peru–Chile trench. This has implications for the friction of the subducting Nazca plate and associated seismicity and uplift.

Hidden diversity in spring snails from the Andean Altiplano, the second highest plateau on Earth, and the Atacama Desert, the driest place in the world

The Chilean Altiplano and the Atacama Desert in northern Chile harbor isolated hydrological systems or oases where it is possible to find minute aquatic snails of the genus Heleobia whose taxonomy is uncertain and where many populations remain unknown. Here, we obtained samples from 30 localities distributed in the region and used molecular (12S and 16S mitochondrial genes) and morphological (penis) characters to investigate diversity of this poorly known fauna. Molecular phylogenetic analysis consistently recovered five clades, one of which constitutes a cryptic species previously assigned to a species recognized in the area. Four other clades contained sequences of one nominal species consistent with its type locality and at least two additional candidate species, which were corroborated by a particular penis morphology. Furthermore, some morphological differences in penis morphology were observed in two Altiplano populations not resolved by the DNA sequences, providing support for two additional candidate species in the genus. A molecular clock analysis allowed tracing the origin of lineages back to the Early Pleistocene. We found support for recognizing four nominal species, one undescribed species and at least other four candidate species of the genus Heleobia in northern Chile. We also suggest that the current level of species diversity of Heleobia in the region is underestimated by the use of conchological criteria to recognize species and by the limited sampling conducted to date.

Strong Down-Valley Low-Level Jets over the Atacama Desert: Observational Characterization

AbstractThe near-surface wind and temperature regime at three points in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile is described using two years of multilevel measurements from 80-m towers located in an altitude range between 2100 and 2700 m MSL. The data reveal the frequent development of strong nocturnal drainage flows at all sites. Down-valley, nose-shaped wind speed profiles are observed, with maximum values occurring at heights between 20 and 60 m AGL. The flow intensity shows considerable interdaily variability and a seasonal modulation of maximum speeds, which in the cold season can attain hourly average values of more than 20 m s−1. Turbulent mixing appears to be important over the full tower layer, affecting the curvature of the nighttime temperature profile and possibly explaining the observed increase of surface temperatures in the down-valley direction. Nocturnal valley winds and temperatures are weakly controlled by upper-air conditions observed at the nearest aerological station. Estimates of terms in the momentum budget for the development and quasi-stationary phases of the down-valley flows suggest that the pressure gradient force due to the near-surface cooling along the sloping valley axes plays an important role in these drainage flows. A scale for the jet nose height of equilibrium turbulent down-slope jets is proposed that is based on surface friction velocity and surface inversion intensity. At one of the sites, this scale explains about 70% of the case-to-case observed variance of jet nose heights. Further modeling and observations are needed, however, to define better the dynamics, extent, and turbulence structure of this flow system, which has significant wind-energy, climatic, and environmental implications.

Deterioration, decay and identification of fungi isolated from wooden structures at the Humberstone and Santa Laura saltpeter works: A world heritage site in Chile

The use of wood in construction has been part of mankind's history but wood placed into the environment is affected by biotic and abiotic agents and is degraded over time. Even in extreme environments, such as dry desert sites, deterioration of wood can take place. One site located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile is the Humberstone and Santa Laura saltpeter works where offices and other structures were built of wood. Founded in 1872, the Humberstone and Santa Laura Saltpeter Works was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005 for its historic significance. Since significant deterioration in the wooden buildings has taken place, investigations were initiated to better understand the degradation underway so conservation efforts to protect the historic buildings can be developed. The objectives of this study were to identify the type of deterioration and decay taking place and to isolate and identify fungi from wood samples of structural elements at both sites. Samples of deteriorated wood showed extensive degradation that resulted in a defibration of the wood. The middle lamella between cells was degraded and remaining secondary walls separated due to high concentrations of salts. This resulted in a serious corrosion of the exterior layers of wood cells. Although high salts inhibit fungi, many different fungi were isolated. Sequencing of the ITS region of the rDNA was used and fungi were identified as Penicillium chrysogenum, Engyodontium album, Eupenicillium tropicum, Penicillium digitatum, Pseudotaeniolina globosa, Cladosporium phaenocomae, Aureobasidium pullulans, Penicillium virgatum, Coprinopsis sp. and Phanerochaete sordida. Several of these fungi appear to be halophilic.

Liolaemus stolzmanni (Steindachner, 1891) (Squamata: Liolaemidae ): Distribution update

Liolaemus stolzmanni (Steindachner, 1891), formerly recognized as Phrynosaura reichei, is endemic of the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. The distribution of this species has been historically documented from the Tacna Department in Peru to the Atacama Region in Chile; however, new species have been described in some of these sites, and L. stolzmanni does not exist in those localities. An updated distribution map and new specific locations for L. stolzmanni are given based on new observations and/or collections in Tarapacá Region.

RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY AND X-RAY FLUORESCENCE IN MOLECULAR ANALYSIS OF YELLOW BLOCKS FROM THE ARCHEOLOGICAL SITE PLAYA MILLER 7 (NORTHERN CHILE)

Yellow blocks from the archaeological site Playa Miller 7 (PLM7), on the coast of Atacama Desert in northern Chile, were analyzed by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) portable. Our results identify for the first time the use of K-jarosite and natrojarosite in prehispanic times (approx. 2500 year BP). In search of a possible source of supply for this mineral hydrothermal origin, our surveys were focused on Andean geothermal areas with identification, so far, from a single source in the region of Arica and Parinacota: Jurasi (JU), located at 4000 mamsl. Comparison of the Raman spectra between samples archaeological and Jurasi, allow us to infer that this hydrothermal source could be used as obtaining source of yellow pigment by prehispanic inhabitant of Formative period (3700-1500 years B.P.).

Seasonal diet of the burrowing owl Athene cunicularia Molina, 1782 (Strigidae) in a hyperarid ecosystem of the Atacama desert in northern Chile

Located in the Atacama desert of northern Chile, Pampa del Tamarugal is a hyperarid ecosystem characterized by extreme arid conditions (<0.7 mm of annual precipitation) and relatively scarce vegetation, dominated by arboreal species of Prosopis tamarugo. These unfavorable environmental conditions can affect the quantity and diversity of prey available for carnivores, making Pampa del Tamarugal an interesting environmental scenario for the study of the trophic ecology of raptors. Our analyses of the seasonal diet of the burrowing owl Athene cunicularia (Molina, 1782) indicate that insects and scorpions were the most common prey (58.3% and 27.5%, respectively). However, the rodent Phyllotis darwini was the most important prey in biomass (49.5%). Significant differences were observed in diverse trophic statisticians between summer and winter seasons. Unlike similar studies carried out in arid areas of South America and North America, we observe that the diet of the burrowing owl in Pampa del Tamarugal shows a higher trophic niche breadth and trophic diversity, but a lower species-prey richness.

A small, new gerbil-mouse Eligmodontia (Rodentia: Cricetidae) from dunes at the coasts and deserts of north-central Chile: molecular, chromosomic, and morphological analyses.

A small, new species of gerbil rodents of the genus Eligmodontia from the southwestern dunes of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile is described; the genus had not been reported for this western lowland region. Our description is based on cytogenetic and molecular data, as well as cranial and external morphology. In order to support this hypothesis, we studied 27 specimens captured in Playa Los Choros (Coquimbo) and Copiapó (Atacama), comparing them with samples of all the extant species of the genus. Nineteen individuals consistently showed 2N=50, FN=48, with telocentric chromosomes and G-bands identical to those of the geographically northeastern E. hirtipes; these two groups were geographically separated by E. puerulus (2N = 34, FN = 48). The phylogenetic analysis of 56 Eligmodontia cytochrome-b gene sequences yielded a maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree where the new species formed a divergent and well-supported clade within the genus, which was also confirmed by unweighted parsimony, minimum evolution, and Bayesian analyses. The new species has K2P genetic distances of 12.8% from the geographically distant E. hirtipes, and 10.3% from E. puerulus. Axes 1 and 2 of Principal Component Analysis based on 12 body and skull measurements clearly separated the new species, the latter having a smaller head+body length (70.6 +/- 3.4 mm, n = 17) and lower weight (11.9 +/- 1.9 g, n = 20). We provide strong evidence to recognize a distinct new western lineage within Eligmodontia genus, Eligmodontia dunaris sp. nov., for which we give a complete taxonomic description and a hypothetical biogeographic scenario. The new species should be considered endangered, due to its level of endemism, its low population numbers (which can be occasionally increased after a blooming desert) and its fragile dry habitat patchily distributed near the Atacama Desert.

The Blue Water Footprint of Primary Copper Production in Northern Chile

SummaryWater consumption related to the life cycle of metals is seldom reported, even though mines are often situated in very dry regions. In this study we quantified the life cycle consumption of groundwater and fresh surface water (blue water footprint [WFblue]) for the extraction and production of high‐grade copper refined from both a copper sulfide ore and a copper oxide ore in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. Where possible, we used company‐specific data.The processes for extracting copper from the two types of ore are quite different from each other, and the WFblue of the sulfide ore refining process is 2.4 times higher than that of the oxide ore refining process (i.e., 96 cubic meters per metric ton [tonne] of copper versus 40 cubic meters per tonne of copper). Most of the water consumption (59% of WFblue) in the sulfide ore process occurred at the concentrator plant, via seepage, accumulation, and also by evaporation. In the oxide ore process, the main user of water is the heap‐leaching process, with 45% of WFblue. The crushing and agglomeration operations, electrowinning cells, and solution pools are also significant contributors to the total consumption of water in the oxide ore process. Most of the water consumed in the oxide ore process was lost to evaporation.The WFblue of the oxide ore process can be reduced by preventing water evaporation and using more sophisticated devices during irrigation of the leaching heaps. The WFblue of the sulfide ore refining process can be reduced by improving water recovery (i.e., reducing seepage, accumulation, and evaporation) from the tailings dam at the concentrator plant. Using seawater in the production of copper is also a promising option to reduce the WFblue by up to 62%.

Active erosion–deposition cycles in the hyperarid Atacama Desert of Northern Chile

There is significant debate over the rates and types of fluvial activity at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in the hyperarid Atacama Desert of Chile. To quantify fluvial processes and help resolve this debate, we measure terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (TCN) (10Be and 21Ne) concentration depth profiles in three settings representing a chronosequence: (1) a late Pliocene alluvial fan representative of major regional deposits, (2) a modern, active channel and (3) an adjacent low terrace inset into the Pliocene alluvium. Late Pliocene deposits that are widely preserved in the region contain TCN profiles consistent with relatively rapid stripping of upland sediment at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary. Deposits inset into these Late Pliocene features record cut and fill cycles that rework sediment throughout the Quaternary. The TCN profile in the modern channel is best explained by sediment aggradation at 2.1mMyr−1 during the last 250,000yr. Similarly, the adjacent low terrace sediments contain TCN concentration profiles consistent with aggradation of 2.0mMyr−1 over a period of 250,000–750,000yr prior to the last 250,000yr of stability. In summary, depth profiles of two TCNs provide constraints on the rates of sediment deposition, sources of sediment and transport history, as well as the subsequent exposure conditions of the sediment following deposition. Our results are consistent with early Quaternary initiation of hyperaridity for the region. During the Quaternary, winter precipitation events experienced at our sites' latitude (24°S) drive active erosion–deposition cycles. The northward migration of the subtropical front during Quaternary glacial cycles may have enhanced precipitation at 24°S, leading to more active fluvial processes during cooler periods.

Colluvial sedimentation in a hyperarid setting (Atacama Desert, northern Chile): Geomorphic controls and stratigraphic facies variability

AbstractResearch on colluvial depositional systems has recently emphasized periglacial and high‐altitude settings, and the relations between Quaternary slope stratigraphy and climate change. This article examines the role of variable slope morphology, surface hydrology and microclimate in controlling colluvial sedimentation along a coastal tract of the hyperarid Atacama Desert in northern Chile. Direct accessibility of active surfaces is accompanied by uninterrupted stratigraphic exposures along the base of slopes, allowing direct comparisons between surface processes and the resulting sedimentary record. Four slope sectors are identified, based on differences in morphology and processes over active surfaces. Colluvial sedimentation is controlled by complex interactions of slope gradients and profiles, exposure to dominant winds, and potential runoff pathways, which vary considerably between different sectors. Major differences are evident between these hyperarid deposits and slope sedimentation in periglacial and temperate settings, including the complete absence of pedogenic activity and clay minerals; the volume of aeolian deposits and their role in controlling processes which redistribute sediment downslope, extending colluvial aprons; and the occurrence of runoff processes only where favoured by particular topographic configurations. Depositional surfaces range from steep talus cones, to debris‐flow‐dominated and aeolian‐dominated colluvial aprons, to an aeolian ramp subject to reworking by mass flows and flash floods. Consequently, facies associations and architectures at outcrop are highly variable and highlight the importance of spatial variations in slope morphology and processes in producing distinct, coeval colluvial stratigraphies within a single environmental context. Discrepancies between active processes and the corresponding stratigraphic signatures are also evident in some sectors; for example, preservation of alluvial and aeolian facies in stratigraphic sections does not always reflect the dominant processes over active slopes. Together with the spatial variability in processes and deposits along these slopes, this suggests that caution is required when extracting palaeoenvironmental information from analyses of colluvial successions.

Microbiology of hyper-arid environments: recent insights from the Atacama Desert, Chile

Interests in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile until very recently were founded on its mineral resources, notably nitrate, copper, lithium and boron. Now this vast desert, the oldest and most arid on Earth, is revealing a microbial diversity that was unimagined even a decade or so ago; indeed the extreme hyper-arid core of the Desert was considered previously to be completely devoid of life. In this Perspective article we highlight pioneering research that, to the contrary, establishes the Atacama as a combination of rich microbial habitats including bacteria that influence biogeochemical transformations in the desert and others that are propitious sources of novel natural products. Many of the Atacama's habitats are especially rich in actinobacteria, not necessarily as dense populations but extensive in taxonomic diversity and capacities to synthesize novel secondary metabolites. Among the latter, compounds have been characterized that express a range of antibiotic, anti-cancer and anti- inflammatory properties to which a variety of bioinformatics and metabolic engineering tools are being applied in order to enhance potencies and productivities. Unquestionably the Atacama Desert is a living desert with regard to which future microbiology and biotechnology research presents exciting opportunities.

Zebra stripes in the Atacama Desert: Fossil evidence of overland flow

Some hillslopes in the hyperarid region of the Atacama Desert in northern Chile have surface clasts organized into distinct, contour-parallel bands separated by bare soil. We call the bands “zebra stripes” due to the contrast between the darkly varnished clasts and the light-colored, salt-rich soil. Gravel that comprises the zebra stripes is sorted such that the coarsest clasts are at the downslope front and fine progressively upslope. How and when the zebra stripes formed are perplexing questions, particularly in a region experiencing prolonged hyperaridity. Using GoogleEarth, satellite imagery, and field observations, we report the first quantitative and qualitative observations of zebra stripes in order to test hypotheses of the mechanisms and timing of their formation. We consider soil shrink-swell, seismic shaking, and overland flow as possible formation mechanisms, and find that overland flow is the most likely. Based on cosmogenic 10Be concentrations in surface clasts, salt deposition rates from the atmosphere, and content in the soils, we propose that the salt-rich soils began accumulating ~106y ago and the zebra stripes formed 103–104y at the latest. The zebra stripe pattern has been preserved due to the self-stabilization of the clasts within the stripes and the continued absence of life (which would disturb the surface, as seen at a wetter site to the south). We conclude that the occurrence of zebra stripes is diagnostic of a set of distinct characteristics of local and/or regional precipitation, soil, hillslope form, and bedrock type.

Profile of Charles Stanish

A magazine photograph shows archaeologist Charles Stanish posing against the bleak backdrop of Northern Chile's Atacama Desert in the shimmering heat of noon. Thrown into relief by the desert’s vast emptiness, Stanish stands in the foreground of a forbidding landscape marked by the remains of a centuries-old irrigation canal built by indigenous people who introduced agriculture into the desert. For nearly four decades, Stanish, a member of the National Academy of Sciences and professor of archaeology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), has followed a winding path through two continents to discover the origin of ancient American societies. His zeal has helped reconstruct the fortunes of indigenous folk who thrived around Lake Titicaca, nestled in the Andes between Bolivia and Peru at an altitude unmatched by any other navigable lake in the world. Charles Stanish. Stanish holding an artifact in Chincha, Peru. Raised under modest circumstances, Stanish grew up in the suburbs of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. From an early age, he nursed a love of ancient Greek and Roman history. Upon graduation from high school in the mid-1970s, Stanish pursued a bachelor’s degree in archaeology at Pennsylvania State University. There, he absorbed the teachings of a coterie of Jewish emigres from the Vienna School of Philosophy who had fled Nazi Germany. Among his teachers were proteges of the renowned Austrian philosopher Karl Popper, whose treatise exploring the nature of the scientific quest for knowledge, The Logic of Scientific Discovery , was hailed as a milestone by communities of scientists and philosophers alike. “That experience cemented my love of science,” he says. Yet it was the authority and erudition of late Penn State archaeologist William Sanders, who studied the rise of ancient societies in Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras, that fed Stanish’s interest in the field. “He asked the big questions …

Seismicity and the strange rubbing boulders of the Atacama Desert, northern Chile

We found clusters of 0.5–8 t boulders worn to smoothness around their midsections in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. We suggest that the boulder smoothing is the cumulative result of at least 1 m.y. of rubbing between boulders during earthquakes. 10Be exposure ages of boulder tops from these fields average ∼1.3 m.y., unsurprisingly old given the hyperaridity of the Atacama. During a visit to one major boulder site, we experienced an earthquake that rocked but did not tip the boulders, causing them to rub against each other for about a minute. This MW 5.2 earthquake was centered ∼100 km northeast of the site. In the seismically active Atacama, earthquakes of this energy or greater occur about once every four months, suggesting that the average boulder has undergone ∼40,000–70,000 h of abrasion over the past 1.3 m.y. This unusual evidence underscores the largely unrecognized role that seismicity probably plays in hillslope sediment transport in the nearly rainless Atacama Desert, and perhaps on other seismically active but now dry worlds like Mars.

Precision engineering for astronomy: historical origins and the future revolution in ground-based astronomy

Since the dawn of civilization, the human race has pushed technology to the limit to study the heavens in ever-increasing detail. As astronomical instruments have evolved from those built by Tycho Brahe in the sixteenth century, through Galileo and Newton in the seventeenth, to the present day, astronomers have made ever more precise measurements. To do this, they have pushed the art and science of precision engineering to extremes. Some of the critical steps are described in the evolution of precision engineering from the first telescopes to the modern generation telescopes and ultra-sensitive instruments that need a combination of precision manufacturing, metrology and accurate positioning systems. In the future, precision-engineered technologies such as those emerging from the photonics industries may enable future progress in enhancing the capabilities of instruments, while potentially reducing the size and cost. In the modern era, there has been a revolution in astronomy leading to ever-increasing light-gathering capability. Today, the European Southern Observatory (ESO) is at the forefront of this revolution, building observatories on the ground that are set to transform our view of the universe. At an elevation of 5000 m in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, the Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA) is nearing completion. The ALMA is the most powerful radio observatory ever and is being built by a global partnership from Europe, North America and East Asia. In the optical/infrared part of the spectrum, the latest project for ESO is even more ambitious: the European Extremely Large Telescope, a giant 40 m class telescope that will also be located in Chile and which will give the most detailed view of the universe so far.

Emergence of social complexity among coastal hunter-gatherers in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile

The emergence of complex cultural practices in simple hunter-gatherer groups poses interesting questions on what drives social complexity and what causes the emergence and disappearance of cultural innovations. Here we analyze the conditions that underlie the emergence of artificial mummification in the Chinchorro culture in the coastal Atacama Desert in northern Chile and southern Peru. We provide empirical and theoretical evidence that artificial mummification appeared during a period of increased coastal freshwater availability and marine productivity, which caused an increase in human population size and accelerated the emergence of cultural innovations, as predicted by recent models of cultural and technological evolution. Under a scenario of increasing population size and extreme aridity (with little or no decomposition of corpses) a simple demographic model shows that dead individuals may have become a significant part of the landscape, creating the conditions for the manipulation of the dead that led to the emergence of complex mortuary practices.

Massive atmospheric nitrate accumulation in a continental interior desert, northwestern China

Large-scale nitrate deposits are rare on Earth’s surface due to the high solubility of nitrate minerals. Exceptions are found in extremely old (to 14 m.y.) and hyperarid deserts such as the Atacama Desert in northern Chile, or the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica. The nitrate in both of these regions has been determined to originate from atmospheric oxidation of NOx. Here we report a new type of massive atmospheric nitrate deposit, with resources equivalent to the Atacama deposits, in the Turpan-Hami area, northwestern China. This deposit is characterized by (1) a location in the center of a large continent; (2) young age (Pleistocene); (3) general enrichment near the surface rather than at depth; and (4) high spatial variability in the nitrogen and triple oxygen isotope composition within this arid region, the δ15N ranging from 0.7‰ to 27.6‰, δ18O from 30.2‰ to 46.7‰, and Δ17O from 5.9‰ to 20.7‰. The Turpan-Hami nitrate deposit nitrogen and triple oxygen isotope composition is closely between those of the Mojave Desert (southwestern United States) and the Atacama Desert, suggesting that (1) Earth’s low-middle latitudes (i.e., non-polar sites) have been receiving atmospheric nitrate deposition of similar nitrogen and triple oxygen isotope composition; and (2) local or regional isotope differences in nitrate deposits can be attributed to postdepositional processes, namely the difference in aridity and associated microbial activities.

Accumulation of impact markers in desert wetlands and implications for the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis contends that an extraterrestrial object exploded over North America at 12.9ka, initiating the Younger Dryas cold event, the extinction of many North American megafauna, and the demise of the Clovis archeological culture. Although the exact nature and location of the proposed impact or explosion remain unclear, alleged evidence for the fallout comes from multiple sites across North America and a site in Belgium. At 6 of the 10 original sites (excluding the Carolina Bays), elevated concentrations of various "impact markers" were found in association with black mats that date to the onset of the Younger Dryas. Black mats are common features in paleowetland deposits and typically represent shallow marsh environments. In this study, we investigated black mats ranging in age from approximately 6 to more than 40ka in the southwestern United States and the Atacama Desert of northern Chile. At 10 of 13 sites, we found elevated concentrations of iridium in bulk and magnetic sediments, magnetic spherules, and/or titanomagnetite grains within or at the base of black mats, regardless of their age or location, suggesting that elevated concentrations of these markers arise from processes common to wetland systems, and not a catastrophic extraterrestrial impact event.

Mining Development and Environmental Injustice in the Atacama Desert of Northern Chile

Abstract Large amounts of national and transnational capital are currently being invested in mining projects located in the Atacama Desert, one of the driest deserts in the world. These projects require large quantities of water for their industrial processes. Water sources in the middle of this desert are extremely limited, despite many lakes, lagoons, salt lakes, and wetlands located on the Andean highlands, bordering its eastern side. Most of them are located in natural conservation areas or territories claimed by indigenous communities. Given the lack of superficial water, location of mining projects in northernmost Chilean regions are beginning to be increasingly located near ground resources and overlapping nature conservation areas, biodiversity protection sites, and communal lands claimed by indigenous peoples. At present, water withdrawal by mining companies has been favored by governments and legislation and supported by neoliberal mechanisms such as privatization and commodification of natural ...